No Nonsense Technician Class

License Study Guide

for tests given between July 2018 and June 2022

Dan Romanchik KB6NU

Copyright © 2018 Daniel M. Romanchik

Al rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author.

Revision 1.1, 10/31/2018

Table of Contents

What is amateur (ham) radio?............................................................................................1

How do you get into amateur radio?..................................................................................1

How much does it cost?.....................................................................................................1

Where do I take the test?...................................................................................................2

Can I really learn how to be an amateur radio operator from a study guide like this?......2

How do I use this study guide?..........................................................................................2

Good luck and have fun.....................................................................................................3

Electrical principles.............................................................................................................4

Units and terms: current, voltage, and resistance; alternating and direct current;

conductors and insulators..................................................................................................4

Ohm’s Law: formulas and usage.......................................................................................7

Series and paral el circuits.................................................................................................9

DC power.........................................................................................................................11

Math for electronics and conversion of electrical units....................................................12

Decibels...........................................................................................................................14

Electronic components and circuit diagrams.................................................................15

Resistors, capacitors and capacitance, inductors and inductance, batteries..................15

Semiconductors: basic principles and applications of solid state devices, diodes and

transistors........................................................................................................................17

Circuit diagrams, schematic symbols, component functions...........................................19

Other components...........................................................................................................23

Radio wave characteristics...............................................................................................24

Frequency, wavelength, and the electromagnetic spectrum...........................................24

Properties of radio waves and propagation modes.........................................................27

HF Propagation................................................................................................................31

Antennas and feed lines....................................................................................................33

Antenna types and antenna polarization.........................................................................33

Feed lines and connectors...............................................................................................36

Standing wave ratio and antenna measurements...........................................................39

Amateur radio signals.......................................................................................................42

Modulation modes and signal bandwidth........................................................................42

Digital modes: packet, PSK31.........................................................................................44

Electrical safety..................................................................................................................47

Power circuits and hazards, hazardous voltages, fuses and circuit breakers, grounding,

and battery safety............................................................................................................47

Antenna and tower safety................................................................................................49

RF hazards and radiation exposure................................................................................51

Amateur radio practices and station setup.....................................................................53

Station setup: connecting microphones, reducing unwanted emissions, power sources,

connecting a computer, RF grounding, connecting digital equipment............................53

Operating controls: tuning, use of filters, squelch function, AGC, repeater offset,

memory channels............................................................................................................56

Station equipment..............................................................................................................58

Receivers, transmitters, transceivers, modulation, transverters, low power and weak

signal operation, transmit and receive amplifiers............................................................58

Common transmitter and receiver problems: symptoms of overload and overdrive;

distortion; causes of interference; interference and consumer electronics; part 15

devices; over-modulation; RF feedback; off frequency signals.......................................60

Basic repair and testing: soldering; using basic test instruments; connecting a voltmeter,

ammeter, or ohmmeter....................................................................................................63

Operating Procedures.......................................................................................................65

FM Operation...................................................................................................................65

HF Operation...................................................................................................................68

Public service and emergency communications.............................................................70

Amateur satellite operation..............................................................................................72

Operating activities..........................................................................................................75

Rules and regulations.......................................................................................................77

Purpose and permissible use of the Amateur Radio Service, operator/primary station

license grant; basic terms used in FCC rules; interference; RACES rules; phonetics;

Frequency Coordinator....................................................................................................77

bands; spectrum sharing; transmissions near band edges; contacting the International

Space Station; power output............................................................................................79

Operator licensing: operator classes; sequential and vanity call sign systems;

international communications; reciprocal operation; places where the Amateur Radio

Service is regulated by the FCC; name and address on FCC license database; license

term; renewal; grace period.............................................................................................81

Authorized and prohibited transmission: communications with other countries; music;

exchange of information with other services; indecent language; compensation for use

of station; retransmission of other amateur signals; codes and ciphers; sale of

equipment; unidentified transmissions; one-way transmission.......................................84

Control operator and control types: control operator required; eligibility; designation of

control operator; privileges and duties; control point; local, automatic and remote

control; location of control operator.................................................................................86

Station identification, repeaters, third-party communications, FCC inspection...............88

Glossary..............................................................................................................................90

About the Author................................................................................................................92

What is amateur (ham) radio?

Amateur radio, also known as ham radio, is a hobby enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of Americans and millions around the world. Tey enjoy communicating with one another via two-way radios and experimenting with antennas and electronic circuits.

Al kinds of people are amateur radio operators, also known as “hams.” Hams are young, old, men, women, boys and girls. Kids as young as seven years old have gotten amateur radio licenses, and many hams are active into their eighties and beyond. You never know who you'l run into on the amateur radio bands: young and old, teachers and students, engineers and scientists, doctors and nurses, mechanics and technicians, kings and entertainers.

For example, did you know that most of the astronauts sent up to the International Space Station (ISS) in the last fve to ten years have been licensed radio amateurs? Tey use the amateur radio station on board the ISS to communicate with school groups al over the world as they are fying over.

How do you get into amateur radio?

With just a little study, you can learn al you need to know to get a Technician Class license, which is the license class designed for beginners. To get a Technician Class license, you must take a test with 35

multiple-choice questions and answer 26 questions correctly. Te test covers basic regulations, operating practices, and electrical and electronics theory.

Knowing Morse Code is no longer required to get this license, nor any class of license. Technician Class licensees have al amateur radio privileges above 30 MHz, including the very popular 2-meter band.

Technicians can also operate Morse Code (CW) on portions of the 80m, 40m, 15m, and 10m bands, and voice and digital modes on portions of the 10m band.

Tere are two other license classes: the eeneral Class license and the Amateur xxtra Class license. To get a eeneral Class license, you must pass another 35-question test; the Amateur xxtra Class test has 50

questions. Te tests are progressively more difcult.

eeneral Class licensees get phone and digital mode privileges on portions of the 160m, 80m, 60m, 40m, 20m, 17m, 15m, 12m, and 10m bands. Tey can also operate CW and digital modes on the 30m band. Amateur xxtra licensees have al amateur privileges.

How much does it cost?

Basic study materials, such as this study guide, can be had for free, and the license exam fee will be $15

or less. Once you have your frst license, most hams fnd it best to start with simple equipment and grow over time. A handheld VHF FM transceiver can be purchased for less than $100 new, and excel ent used equipment is often available at low prices. Al things considered, the cost to get the frst license and radio should be less than $200.

1

Where do I take the test?

Amateur radio license examinations are given by Volunteer xxaminers, or Vxs. Vxs are licensed radio amateurs who have been trained to administer amateur radio tests. To fnd out when the Vxs in your area wil be giving the test, go to the American Radio Relay League's (ARRL) website: http://www.arrl.org/fnd-an-amateur-radio-license-exam-session. Using that page, you will be able to search for test sessions that are close to you. If you do not have access to the Internet, you can phone the ARRL at 860-594-0200.

Can I really learn how to be an amateur radio operator from a study guide like this?

Yes and no. Tis manual will help you get your license, but getting your license is only the beginning.

Tere is still much to learn, and to get the most out of amateur radio, you will have to continual y learn new things.

Tis study guide wil teach you the answers to the test questions, but will not give you a deep understanding of electronics, radio, or the rules and regulations. Tat will be up to you after you get your license.

I hope that, by helping you get your license, this guide will encourage you to become an active radio amateur and get on the air, participate in public service and emergency communications, join an amateur radio club, and experiment with radios, antennas, and circuits. Tese are the activities that will real y help you learn about radio in depth, and in the end, help you be confdent in your abilities as an amateur radio operator.

How do I use this study guide?

First, read through the study guide and then take some practice tests. Te characters in parentheses —

(T5A05), for example—refer to the question number in the Technician Class xxam Question Pool.

You will fnd the answers to questions in bold. You can take practice tests by going to the fol owing websites:

•

AA9PW.com

•

QRZ.com/hamtest/

•

eHam.net/exams/ (http://eham.net/exams/)

•

Hamxxam.org (http://hamexam.org)

•

HamStudy.org (http://hamstudy.org)

Tere are also ham test apps for both iOS and Android tablets:

•

iOS:

◦ Amateur Radio xxam Prep (https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/amateur-radio-exam- prep-2

technician/id297951496?mt=8). $4.99

◦ Ham Radio xxam (https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/ham-radio-exam- tech/id601991935?

mt=8). FRxx.

•

Android:

◦ Ham Radio Study (https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.tango11.hamstudy)

◦ Ham Test Prep (https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?

id=com.iversoft.ham.test.prep&hl=en)

Many of the questions use acronyms with which you may be unfamiliar. In the glossary, you wil fnd defnitions of those acronyms. Please refer to the glossary if you are unsure of the meaning of an acronym.

Good luck and have fun

I hope that you fnd this study guide useful and that you’l become a radio amateur. Remember that getting your license is just a start and that you wil continue to learn new things.

If you have any comments, questions, compliments or complaints, I want to hear from you. x-mail me at cwgeek@kb6nu.com. My goal is to continual y refne and improve this study guide.

Dan Romanchik KB6NU

3

Electrical principles

Units and terms: current, voltage, and resistance; alternating and direct current; conductors and insulators

Figure 1 shows a simple electric circuit. It consists of a voltage source (in this case a battery, labeled x), a resistor (labeled R), and some wires to connect the battery to the resistor. When connected in this way, the battery wil cause a current (labeled I) to fow through the circuit.

Figure 1. A simple electric circuit

Te three basic parameters of this circuit are electromotive force (x), current (I), and resistance (R).

xlectromotive force, or xMF, is the force that causes electrons to fow in a circuit. We use the letter x to denote electromotive force. xlectromotive force is measured in volts, and we use the letter V to denote volts.

QUxSTION: What is the electrical term for the electromotive force (xMF) that causes electron fow? (T5A05)

ANSWxR: Voltage

QUxSTION: What is the unit of electromotive force? (T5A11)

ANSWxR: The veolt v

QUxSTION: How much voltage does a mobile transceiver typical y require? (T5A06) ANSWxR: About v12 veolts

Current is the fow of electrons in a circuit. In Figure 1, the letter I stands for current. Current fows from the positive (+) terminal of the voltage source through the circuit to the negative terminal of the voltage source. Current is measured in amperes, and we use the letter A to stand for amperes.

4

QUxSTION: What is the name for the fow of electrons in an electric circuit? (T5A03) ANSWxR: Current

QUxSTION: xlectrical current is measured in which of the fol owing units? (T5A01) ANSWxR: Amperes

Because the polarity of the battery voltage never changes, the current will fow in only one direction through the circuit. We cal this direct current, or DC.

QUxSTION: What is the name for a current that fows only in one direction? (T5A04) ANSWxR: Direct vcurrent

Batteries supply direct current, or simply, DC.

Resistance is the third parameter. As the name implies, resistance opposes the fow of electrons in a circuit. Te higher the resistance, the smal er the current. We use the letter R to stand for resistance.

Resistance is measured in ohms, and we use the ereek letter omega ( ) Ω to stand for ohms.

Te type of current you get out of a wal socket is diferent from the current that you get from a battery.

Unlike the battery, the polarity of the voltage changes from positive to negative and back to positive on a regular basis. In fact, it changes polarity 120 times per second. Tis means that the current changes direction 120 times per second. Because of this, we cal it alternating current, or AC.

QUxSTION: What is the name for a current that reverses direction on a regular basis?

(T5A09)

ANSWxR: Alternating vcurrent

One of the most important parameters of an alternating current is its frequency. Te frequency of an alternating current is the number of cycles per second, where a cycle is the time required for an alternating current to go from 0 V to its most positive value, then negative to its most negative value, then positive to 0 V again.

QUxSTION: What term describes the number of times per second that an alternating current makes a complete cycle? (T5A12)

ANSWxR: Frequency

QUxSTION: What is the unit of frequency? (T5C05)

ANSWxR: Hertz

1 Hz is equal to one cycle per second. An alternating current reverses polarity twice per cycle, so the frequency of the alternating current available from a wal socket is 60 Hz.

5

Conductors are materials that conduct electrical current wel or, in other words, have a low resistance.

We use copper wires to connect a power supply to a radio because copper wires are good conductors.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a good electrical conductor? (T5A07) ANSWxR: Copper

Silver is actual y a better conductor than copper, but copper is a lot less expensive than silver. Often, you wil see gold used as a conductor. Although gold is not as good a conductor as either copper or silver, it doesn’t corrode like copper or silver. Tat makes it a good choice for switch or connector contacts.

Many times we need a material that does not conduct current very wel . We cal these materials insulators, and insulators have a high resistance. Plastics and glass are commonly used insulators.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a good electrical insulator? (T5A08) ANSWxR: Glass

6

Ohm’s Law: formulas and usage

Hams obey Ohm’s Law!

Ohm’s Law is the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit. When you know any two of these values, you can calculate the third.

Te most basic equation for Ohm’s Law is x = I R. In other words, when you know the current fowing through a circuit and the resistance of the circuit, you can calculate the voltage across the circuit by multiplying these two values.

QUxSTION: What formula is used to calculate voltage in a circuit? (T5D02) ANSWxR: Voltage v(E) vequals vcurrent v(I) vmultiplied vby vresistance v(R) Using simple algebra, you can derive the other two forms of this equation. Tese two equations let you calculate the resistance in a circuit if you know the voltage and current or the current in a circuit if you know the voltage and resistance.

QUxSTION: What formula is used to calculate resistance in a circuit? (T5D03) ANSWxR: Resistance v(R) vequals veoltage v(E) vdieided vby vcurrent v(I) We can also write this formula as R = x ÷ I.

QUxSTION: What formula is used to calculate current in a circuit? (T5D01) ANSWxR: Current v(I) vequals veoltage v(E) vdieided vby vresistance v(R) Tis formula is written I = x ÷ R.

Now, let’s look at some examples of how to apply Ohm’s Law.

QUxSTION: What is the resistance of a circuit in which a current of 3 amperes fows through a resistor connected to 90 volts? (T5D04)

ANSWxR: 30 vohms

Here’s how to calculate this answer: R = x ÷ I = 90 V ÷ 3 A = 30 Ω

QUxSTION: What is the resistance in a circuit for which the applied voltage is 12 volts and the current fow is 1.5 amperes? (T5D05)

ANSWxR: 8 vohms

R = x ÷ I = 12 V ÷ 1.5 A = 8 Ω

QUxSTION: What is the resistance of a circuit that draws 4 amperes from a 12-volt source? (T5D06)

ANSWxR: 3 vohms

R = x ÷ I = 12 V ÷ 4 A = 3 .

Ω Now, let's look at another form of the Ohm's Law equation, I = x ÷ R to calculate the current in a circuit.

7

QUxSTION: What is the current in a circuit with an applied voltage of 120 volts and a resistance of 80 ohms? (T5D07)

ANSWxR: 1.5 vamperes

I = x ÷ R = 120 V ÷ 80 Ω = 1.5 A

QUxSTION: What is the current through a 100-ohm resistor connected across 200 volts?

(T5D08)

ANSWxR: 2 vamperes

I = x ÷ R = 200 V ÷ 100 Ω = 2 A

QUxSTION: What is the current through a 24-ohm resistor connected across 240 volts?

(T5D09)

ANSWxR: 10 vamperes

I = x ÷ R = 240 V ÷ 24 Ω = 10 A

Now, let's look at the third form of the Ohm's Law equation, x = I R to calculate the voltage across a circuit.

QUxSTION: What is the voltage across a 2-ohm resistor if a current of 0.5 amperes fows through it? (T5D10)

ANSWxR: 1 veolt

x = I R = 0.5 A 2 Ω = 1 V

QUxSTION: What is the voltage across a 10-ohm resistor if a current of 1 ampere fows through it? (T5D11)

ANSWxR: 10 veolts

x = I R = 1 A 10 Ω = 10 V

QUxSTION: What is the voltage across a 10-ohm resistor if a current of 2 amperes fows through it? (T5D12)

ANSWxR: 20 veolts

x = I R = 2 A 10 Ω = 20 V

8

Series and parallel circuits

Now, let’s consider circuits with two resistors instead of just a single resistor. Tere are two ways in which the two resistors can be connected: in series or in paral el. Figure 2 shows a series circuit.

Figure 2. Series circuit.

Tere is only one path for the current to fow, so the same current fows through both resistors. And, because the voltage across the resistors is equal to I x R, the voltage across each of the resistors will depend on the value of the resistors. If R1 = R2, then the voltage will be the same across both resistors, because the same current fows through both resistors. If R1 does not equal R2, however, the voltages will be diferent. In either case, the sum of the two voltages wil equal the voltage of the voltage source.

QUxSTION: In which type of circuit is current the same through al components?

(T5A13)

ANSWxR: Series

QUxSTION: What happens to current at the junction of two components in series?

(T5D13)

ANSWxR: It vis vunchanged

QUxSTION: What is the voltage across each of two components in series with a voltage source? (T5D15)

ANSWxR: It vis vdetermined vby vthe vtype vand vealue vof vthe vcomponents 9

In a paral el circuit, shown in Figure 3, both resistors are connected directly to the voltage source.

Figure 3. Parallel circuit.

Because both components are connected directly to the voltage source, the voltage across them will be the same. Tis voltage will cause currents to fow in each of the resistors. I1 = V/R1, and I2 = V/R2.

Te total current, I, is equal to I1 + I2. If R1 = R2, then the same current fows through both resistors.

If the resistors have diferent values, then I1 will be diferent from I2.

QUxSTION: In which type of circuit is voltage the same across al components? (T5A14) ANSWxR: Parallel

QUxSTION: What is the voltage across each of two components in paral el with a voltage source? (T5D16)

ANSWxR: The vsame veoltage vas vthe vsource

QUxSTION: What happens to current at the junction of two components in paral el?

(T5D14)

ANSWxR: It vdieides vbetween vthem vdependent von vthe vealue vof vthe vcomponents 10

DC power

Power is the rate at which electrical energy is generated or consumed. Power is measured in watts. We use the letter P to stand for power and the letter W to stand for watts.

QUxSTION: Which term describes the rate at which electrical energy is used? (T5A10) ANSWxR: Power

QUxSTION: xlectrical power is measured in which of the fol owing units? (T5A02) ANSWxR: Watts

To calculate power, we multiply the voltage across a circuit by the current fowing through the circuit.

We write this equation P = x I.

QUxSTION: What is the formula used to calculate electrical power in a DC circuit?

(T5C08)

ANSWxR: Power v(P) vequals veoltage v(E) vmultiplied vby vcurrent v(I) Here are some examples:

QUxSTION: How much power is being used in a circuit when the applied voltage is 13.8

volts DC and the current is 10 amperes? (T5C09)

ANSWxR: 138 vwatts

Te calculation for this question is P = x I = 13.8 V 10 A = 138 W.

QUxSTION: How much power is being used in a circuit when the applied voltage is 12

volts DC and the current is 2.5 amperes? (T5C10)

ANSWxR: 30 vwatts

Te calculation for this question is P = x I = 12 V 2.5 A = 30 W.

Just as with Ohm’s Law, you can use algebra to come up with other forms of this equation to calculate the voltage if you know the power and the current, or to calculate the current if you know the power and the voltage. Te formula to calculate the current, if you know the power and the voltage, is I = P ÷

x.

QUxSTION: How many amperes are fowing in a circuit when the applied voltage is 12

volts DC and the load is 120 watts? (T5C11)

ANSWxR: 10 vamperes

In this question, “load” means the power the circuit is consuming. Te calculation for this question is I

= P ÷ x = 120 W ÷ 12 V = 10 A.

11

Math for electronics and conversion of electrical units When dealing with electrical parameters such as voltage, resistance, current, and power, we use a set of prefxes to denote various orders of magnitude:

•

milli- is the prefx used to denote 1 one-thousandth of a quantity. A milliampere, for example, is 1 one-thousandth of an ampere, or 0.001 A. Often, the letter m is used instead of the prefx milli-. 1 milliampere is, therefore, 1 mA.

•

micro- is the prefx used to denote 1 one-millionth of a quantity. A microvolt, for example, is 1

one-mil ionth of a volt, or 0.000001 V. Often, you will see the ereek letter mu, or , u μ sed to

denote the prefx micro-. 1 microvolt is, therefore, 1 V

μ .

•

pico- is the prefx used to denote 1 one-trillionth of a quantity. A picovolt is 1 one-trillionth of a volt, or 0.000001 V

μ .

•

kilo- is the prefx used to denote 1 thousand of a quantity. A kilovolt, for example, is 1000

volts. Often, the letter k is used instead of the prefx kilo-. 1 kilovolt is, therefore, 1 kV.

•

mega- is the prefx used to denote 1 million of a quantity. A megahertz, for example, is 1

million Hertz. Often, the letter M is used instead of the prefx mega-. 1 megahertz is, therefore, 1 MHz.

•

giga - is the prefx used to denote one billion of a quantity. One gigahertz, or 1 eHz, for example is 1 billion Hertz.

Prefix

Abbreeiation

Numerical

Exponential

giga-

e

1,000,000,000

109

mega-

M

1,000,000

106

kilo-

k

1,000

103

----

----

1

100

milli-

m

0.001

10-3

micro-

,u

μ

0.000001

10-6

nano-

n

0.000000001

10-9

pico-

p

0.000000000001

10-12

Here are some examples:

QUxSTION: How many milliamperes is 1.5 amperes? (T5B01)

ANSWxR: 1500 vmilliamperes

To convert amperes to milliamperes, you multiply by 1,000.

12

QUxSTION: What is another way to specify a radio signal frequency of 1,500,000 hertz?

(T5B02)

ANSWxR: 1500 vkHz

To convert from hertz (Hz) to kHz, you divide by 1,000.

QUxSTION: How many volts are equal to one kilovolt? (T5B03)

ANSWxR: One vthousand veolts

QUxSTION: How many volts are equal to one microvolt? (T5B04)

ANSWxR: One vone-millionth vof va veolt

To convert from kilovolts to volts, you multiply by 1,000. To convert from microvolts to volts, you divide by one million.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is equal to 500 milliwatts? (T5B05) ANSWxR: 0.5 vwatts

To convert from mil iwatts to watts, you divide by 1,000. 500 ÷ 1000 = ½ or 0.5.

QUxSTION: How many microfarads are equal to 1,000,000 picofarads? (T5B08) ANSWxR: 1 vmicrofarad

Te farad is the unit of capacitance. Tere are 1 million picofarads in a microfarad.

QUxSTION: If an ammeter calibrated in amperes is used to measure a 3000-milliampere current, what reading would it show? (T5B06)

ANSWxR: 3 vamperes

Tere are a thousand milliamperes in an ampere, so to convert from milliamperes to amperes, you divide by 1,000.

QUxSTION: What is the proper abbreviation for megahertz? (T5C14) ANSWxR: MHz

QUxSTION: If a frequency display calibrated in megahertz shows a reading of 3.525

MHz, what would it show if it were calibrated in kilohertz? (T5B07) ANSWxR: 3525 vkHz

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing frequencies is equal to 28,400 kHz? (T5B12) ANSWxR: 28.400 vMHz

QUxSTION: If a frequency display shows a reading of 2425 MHz, what frequency is that in eHz? (T5B13)

ANSWxR: 2.425 vGHz

To convert from MHz to kHz, you multiply by 1,000. To convert from kHz to MHz, or to convert from MHz to eHz, you divide by 1,000.

13

Decibels

When dealing with ratios—especial y power ratios—we often use decibels (dB). Te reason for this is that the decibel scale is a logarithmic scale, meaning that we can talk about large ratios with relatively smal numbers. When the value is positive, it means that there is a power increase. When the value is negative, it means that there is a power decrease.

At this point, you don’t need to know the formula used to calculate the ratio in dB, but you need to know the ratios represented by the values 3 dB, 6 dB, and 10 dB.

QUxSTION: What is the approximate amount of change, measured in decibels (dB), of a power increase from 5 watts to 10 watts? (T5B09)

ANSWxR: 3 vdB

3 dB corresponds to a ratio of 2 to 1, and because going from 5 watts to 10 watts doubles the power, we can also say that there is a gain of 3 dB.

QUxSTION: What is the approximate amount of change, measured in decibels (dB), of a power decrease from 12 watts to 3 watts? (T5B10)

ANSWxR: −6 vdB

6 dB corresponds to a ratio of 4 to 1, and a decrease in power from 12 watts to 3 watts is a ratio of 4 to 1. Because this is a power decrease, the value in dB is negative.

QUxSTION: What is the amount of change, measured in decibels (dB), of a power increase from 20 watts to 200 watts? (T5B11)

ANSWxR: 10 vdB

Increasing the power from 20 watts to 200 watts is a ratio of 10 to 1, and 10 dB corresponds to a ratio of 10 to 1.

14

Electronic components and circuit diagrams

Resistors, capacitors and capacitance, inductors and inductance, batteries

Resistors are components that, as the name implies, oppose the fow of current. We use them to control how much current fows in a circuit. Te higher the resistance, the lower the current.

Most resistors have a fxed value, specifed in ohms, but some are designed to be variable. Tat is, you can change the resistance of the resistor by turning a shaft or sliding a control back and forth. Variable resistors, also cal ed potentiometers, are often used to al ow users to adjust the way a device operates.

QUxSTION: What electrical component opposes the fow of current in a DC circuit?

(T6A01)

ANSWxR: Resistor

QUxSTION: What type of component is often used as an adjustable volume control?

(T6A02)

ANSWxR: Potentiometer

QUxSTION: What electrical parameter is control ed by a potentiometer? (T6A03) ANSWxR: Resistance

Another common electrical component is the capacitor. Te most basic type of capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator, cal ed a dielectric. When you put a DC voltage across a capacitor, an electric current fows into the capacitor until the voltage across the capacitor equals the DC voltage. Tis puts a positive charge on one plate and a negative charge on the other, thereby creating an electric feld between the two plates.

QUxSTION: What type of electrical component consists of two or more conductive surfaces separated by an insulator? (T6A05)

ANSWxR: Capacitor

QUxSTION: What electrical component stores energy in an electric feld? (T6A04) ANSWxR: Capacitor

QUxSTION: What is the ability to store energy in an electric feld cal ed? (T5C01) ANSWxR: Capacitance

QUxSTION: What is the basic unit of capacitance? (T5C02)

ANSWxR: Te farad

Te third most common type of electrical component in amateur radio equipment is the inductor.

15

Inductors are usual y smal coils of wire, and when a current fows through that coil of wire, a magnetic feld is set up around the coil.

QUxSTION: What electrical component usual y is constructed as a coil of wire? (T6A07) ANSWxR: Inductor

QUxSTION: What type of electrical component stores energy in a magnetic feld?

(T6A06)

ANSWxR: Inductor

QUxSTION: What is the ability to store energy in a magnetic feld cal ed? (T5C03) ANSWxR: Inductance

QUxSTION: What is the basic unit of inductance? (T5C04)

ANSWxR: The vhenry

As amateur radio operators, we often use batteries to power our radio equipment. Some types of batteries are rechargeable, while others are not.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing battery types is not rechargeable? (T6A11) ANSWxR: Carbon-zinc

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing battery types is rechargeable? (T6A10) ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Nickel-metal hydride

•

Lithium-ion

•

Lead-acid gel-cel

Tere are a couple of random questions about other types of components.

QUxSTION: What electrical component is used to connect or disconnect electrical circuits? (T6A08)

ANSWxR: Switch

QUxSTION: What electrical component is used to protect other circuit components from current overloads? (T6A09)

ANSWxR: Fuse

16

Semiconductors: basic principles and applications of solid state devices, diodes and transistors

Diodes are the most basic semiconductor component. Tey have only two electrodes, cal ed the anode and cathode, and conduct current only when it is forward biased. Tat is to say, diodes only conduct current when the voltage on the anode is positive with respect to the cathode. When the diode is reverse biased, i.e., when the voltage on the anode is negative with respect to the cathode, the diode will not conduct current.

QUxSTION: What electronic component al ows current to fow in only one direction?

(T6B02)

ANSWxR: Diode

QUxSTION: What are the names of the two electrodes of a diode? (T6B09) ANSWxR: Anode vand vcathode

QUxSTION: How is the cathode lead of a semiconductor diode often marked on the package? (T6B06)

ANSWxR: With va vstripe

Light-emitting diodes, or LxDs, are a particular type of diode. When current fows through them, they emit visible light, making them useful as indicators and as part of digital readouts.

QUxSTION: What does the abbreviation LxD stand for? (T6B07)

ANSWxR: Light vEmitting vDiode

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is commonly used as a visual indicator? (T6D07) ANSWxR: vLED

Transistors are semiconductor components designed to control the current fow through them. Tey have three leads and one of those leads is used as the control pin. A current, in the case of the bipolar junction transistor, or a voltage, in the case of the feld efect transistor, on the control pin controls the current fow between the two other pins.

In some circuits, the transistor is used as a switch, and the control signal simply switches the current on and of. In other circuits, the transistor is used as an amplifer. When used as an amplifer, the current through the transistor is proportional to the input current or voltage. Te ratio of output current to input current is cal ed the gain of the transistor.

QUxSTION: What class of electronic components uses a voltage or current signal to control current fow? (T6B01)

ANSWxR: Transistors

QUxSTION: Which of these components can be used as an electronic switch or amplifer?

(T6B03)

ANSWxR: Transistor

17

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing electronic components can amplify signals? (T6B05) ANSWxR: Transistor

QUxSTION: What is the term that describes a device’s ability to amplify a signal?

(T6B11)

ANSWxR: Gain

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing could be the primary gain-producing component in an RF power amplifer? (T6B10)

ANSWxR: Transistor

Bipolar junction transistors are made up of layers of semiconductor materials that are either P-type, which means that it has a positive net charge, or N-type, which means it has a net negative charge. xach layer has an electrode, making the transistor a device with three leads.

Tere are two types of bipolar junction transistors: PNP or NPN. A PNP transistor has two P layers, with an N layer sandwiched between them. An NPN transistor has two N layers, with a P layer sandwiched between them.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing components can consist of three layers of semiconductor material? (T6B04)

ANSWxR: Transistor

Another type of transistor often found in amateur radio equipment is the feld-efect transistor, or FxT.

To control the fow of current through the feld efect transistor, you use a voltage signal on the control pin. Tis voltage sets up an electric feld inside the transistor, hence the name feld efect transistor.

FxTs, like NPN and PNP transistors have three leads.

QUxSTION: What does the abbreviation FxT stand for? (T6B08)

ANSWxR: Field vEfect vTransistor

18

Circuit diagrams, schematic symbols, component functions

When describing circuits on paper, we draw diagrams cal ed schematic diagrams that show the components used in a circuit and how those components are connected together. Using schematic diagrams lets us describe how a circuit works and lets us reproduce a circuit more easily. Te circuit components are represented by symbols that readily identify the type of component and its value or part number.

QUxSTION: What is the name of an electrical wiring diagram that uses standard component symbols? (T6C01)

ANSWxR: Schematic

QUxSTION: What do the symbols on an electrical schematic represent? (T6C12) ANSWxR: Electrical vcomponents

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is accurately represented in electrical schematics?

(T6C13)

ANSWxR: The vway vcomponents vare vinterconnected

Figure T-1 is a schematic diagram of a simple transistor circuit. In this circuit, the transistor is used as a switch that turns on a lamp when a positive voltage is applied to the input.

QUxSTION: What is component 1 in fgure T1? (T6C02)

ANSWxR: Resistor

Its function is to limit the input current.

QUxSTION: What is component 2 in fgure T1? (T6C03)

ANSWxR: Transistor

QUxSTION: What is the function of component 2 in Figure T1? (T6D10) 19

ANSWxR: Control vthe vfow vof vcurrent

QUxSTION: What is component 3 in fgure T1? (T6C04)

ANSWxR: Lamp

QUxSTION: What is component 4 in fgure T1? (T6C05)

ANSWxR: Battery

Tis battery supplies the current that lights the lamp.

Te circuit shown in Figure T2 is a simple power supply. Component 2 is a fuse.

QUxSTION: What type of switch is represented by component 3 in fgure T2? (T6D03) ANSWxR: Single-pole vsingle-throw

It turns the power supply on and of.

QUxSTION: What is component 4 in fgure T2? (T6C09)

ANSWxR: Transformer

QUxSTION: What component is commonly used to change 120V AC house current to a lower AC voltage for other uses? (T6D06)

ANSWxR: Transformer

Component 5 in Figure T2 is a rectifer diode. Rectifer diodes are designed to handle the higher currents found in power supply circuits.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing devices or circuits changes an alternating current into a varying direct current signal? (T6D01)

ANSWxR: Rectifier

20

QUxSTION: What is component 6 in fgure T2? (T6C06)

ANSWxR: Capacitor

Sometimes, this is cal ed a flter capacitor, and its function is to flter out remnants of the 60 Hz AC

that are part of the varying direct current signal.

QUxSTION: What is component 8 in fgure T2? (T6C07)

ANSWxR: Light vemitting vdiode

Te LxD is a pilot light, serving to alert a user when the power supply is on.

QUxSTION: What is component 9 in fgure T2? (T6C08)

ANSWxR: Variable vresistor

Its purpose is to limit the output current of the supply.

Te circuit shown in Figure T3 is the output circuit of a transmitter.

QUxSTION: What is component 3 in fgure T3? (T6C10)

ANSWxR: Variable vinductor

Tere are two variable capacitors in this circuit—component 2 and the unlabeled component.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is combined with an inductor to make a tuned circuit? (T6D08)

ANSWxR: Capacitor

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a resonant or tuned circuit? (T6D11) ANSWxR: An vinductor vand va vcapacitor vconnected vin vseries vor vparallel vto vform va vfilter 21

When a capacitor and inductor are connected in series, the circuit has a very low impedance at the resonant frequency. When the capacitor and inductor are connected in paral el, the circuit has a very high impedance at the resonant frequency.

QUxSTION: What is component 4 in fgure T3? (T6C11)

ANSWxR: Antenna

22

Other components

Tere are many diferent types of components in modern radio equipment. Below, we will describe the types of components you will need to know about to pass the Technician Class license examination.

One of these is a relay.

QUxSTION: What is a relay? (T6D02)

ANSWxR: An velectrically-controlled vswitch

Meters are devices used to indicate many diferent values. Meters can indicate the output voltage of a power supply, the output power of a transmitter, and many other values.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing displays an electrical quantity as a numeric value?

(T6D04)

ANSWxR: Meter

To make electronic circuits smal er, component manufacturers make devices that have many electronic components on a single piece of silicon. We cal these integrated circuits. Integrated circuits, such as microprocessors, may have million of transistors inside them.

QUxSTION: What is the name of a device that combines several semiconductors and other components into one package? (T6D09)

ANSWxR: Integrated vcircuit

Integrated circuits may perform either analog or digital functions. One type of analog integrated circuit that is very common is the voltage regulator.

QUxSTION: What type of circuit controls the amount of voltage from a power supply?

(T6D05)

ANSWxR: Regulator

When connecting electronic assemblies together, we often use cables with one or more conductors.

Some of those conductors may have a shield around them that is connected to ground.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a common reason to use shielded wire? (T6D12) ANSWxR: To vpreeent vcoupling vof vunwanted vsignals vto vor vfrom vthe vwire 23

Radio wave characteristics

Frequency, wavelength, and the electromagnetic spectrum

Radio waves are what amateur radio is al about. Amateur radio operators generate them and send them of into space. And, on the other side, we capture them and demodulate them.

Radio waves are also cal ed electromagnetic waves because they consist of both an electric wave and a magnetic wave. Te two waves are at right angles to one another, and as the wave travels through space, energy gets swapped between the electric and magnetic waves. Tis is what propels them through space.

QUxSTION: What type of wave carries radio signals between transmitting and receiving stations? (T3A07)

ANSWxR: Electromagnetic

QUxSTION: A radio wave is made up of what type of energy? (T5C07) ANSWxR: Electromagnetic

QUxSTION: What are the two components of a radio wave? (T3B03)

ANSWxR: Electric vand vmagnetic vfields

One important characteristic of a radio wave is its frequency, or the number of cycles per second. As mentioned earlier, the unit of frequency is the Hertz. We abbreviate Hertz as Hz. One Hz is one cycle per second.

Another important characteristic of a radio wave is the speed at which it travels through space. Al electromagnetic waves, no matter the frequency, travel at the speed of light, or 300 million meters per second.

QUxSTION: How fast does a radio wave travel through free space? (T3B04) ANSWxR: At vthe vspeed vof vlight

QUxSTION: What is the approximate velocity of a radio wave as it travels through free space? (T3B11)

ANSWxR: 300,000,000 vmeters vper vsecond

QUxSTION: What is the name for the distance a radio wave travels during one complete cycle? (T3B01)

ANSWxR: Waeelength

Because radio waves travel at the speed of light, or 300,000,000 meters per second, the wavelength is 300,000,000 divided by the frequency. To make this easier to calculate, you can divide both the speed of light and the frequency by one million. Tat makes the equation: wavelength (m) = 300/f (MHz)

24

Te converse of this equation is:

f (MHz) = 300/wavelength (m)

As you can see from the equations, the lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength, and vice versa, the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.

QUxSTION: What is the formula for converting frequency to approximate wavelength in meters? (T3B06)

ANSWxR: Waeelength vin vmeters vequals v300 vdieided vby vfrequency vin vmegahertz QUxSTION: How does the wavelength of a radio wave relate to its frequency? (T3B05) ANSWxR: The vwaeelength vgets vshorter vas vthe vfrequency vincreases In amateur radio, we sometimes use the frequency and sometimes the wavelength when talking about a radio signal. We use wavelength, for example, when we refer to the amateur radio bands.

QUxSTION: What property of radio waves is often used to identify the diferent frequency bands? (T3B07)

ANSWxR: The vapproximate vwaeelength

Te 2 m amateur radio band, for example, spans 144 MHz to 148 MHz. A radio wave with a frequency of 148 MHz, would have a wavelength of 2.03 meters.

For convenience, we split the entire range of radio frequencies into sub-ranges, including high frequency (HF), very high frequency (VHF), and ultra high frequency (UHF).

QUxSTION: What frequency range is referred to as HF? (T3B10)

ANSWxR: 3 vto v30 vMHz

QUxSTION: What are the frequency limits of the VHF spectrum? (T3B08) ANSWxR: 30 vto v300 vMHz

QUxSTION: What are the frequency limits of the UHF spectrum? (T3B09) ANSWxR: 300 vto v3000 vMHz

25

A radio signal of any frequency is cal ed a radio frequency, or RF, signal.

QUxSTION: What does the abbreviation “RF” refer to? (T5C06)

ANSWxR: Radio vfrequency vsignals vof vall vtypes

26

Properties of radio waves and propagation modes As amateur radio operators, we should always try to use the right frequency and the right mode when communicating. To do this, we need to know how radio signals travel from one point to another and what efect frequency, our antennas and even our location have on signal propagation.

Communications at VHF and UHF frequencies are general y “line-of-sight” communications. Tis means they normal y travel in a straight line from the transmitter to the receiver. For this reason, they are normal y used for local communications.

QUxSTION: Why are direct (not via a repeater) UHF signals rarely heard from stations outside your local coverage area? (T3C01)

ANSWxR: UHF vsignals vare vusually vnot vrefected vby vthe vionosphere We’l talk more about the ionosphere below.

Because VHF and UHF signals are line-of-sight, at some distance, the signals will be blocked by the curvature of the xarth. Te maximum distance for line-of-sight communications is cal ed the radio horizon. Te radio horizon extends somewhat farther than the visual horizon.

QUxSTION: Why do VHF and UHF radio signals usual y travel somewhat farther than the visual line of sight distance between two stations? (T3C11) ANSWxR: The vEarth vseems vless vcureed vto vradio vwaees vthan vto vlight One problem often encountered when using VHF and UHF frequencies is multi-path distortion.

Multi-path distortion occurs when your signals arrive at a receiving station via two or more paths. Since the signal paths may be diferent lengths, the signals may arrive out of phase and cancel one another.

QUxSTION: What should you do if another operator reports that your station’s 2 meter signals were strong just a moment ago, but now they are weak or distorted? (T3A01) ANSWxR: Try vmoeing va vfew vfeet vor vchanging vthe vdirection vof vyour vantenna, vif v possible, vas vrefections vmay vbe vcausing vmulti-path vdistortion Moving a few feet might eliminate or reduce the efects of the random refections that are causing multi-path distortion.

Multi-path distortion afects both voice and digital transmissions.

QUxSTION: What may occur if data signals arrive via multiple paths? (T3A10) ANSWxR: Error vrates vare vlikely vto vincrease

Knowing how VHF and UHF signals propagate can help you communicate even in adverse conditions.

When trying to use a repeater, for example, you may fnd yourself in a place where a direct path to the repeater is not possible. If you fnd yourself in this situation, you could try using a directional antenna and bounce your signal of buildings or other obstructions.

27

QUxSTION: When using a directional antenna, how might your station be able to access a distant repeater if buildings or obstructions are blocking the direct line-of-sight path?

(T3A05)

ANSWxR: Try vto vfind va vpath vthat vrefects vsignals vto vthe vrepeater Another phenomenon you might use when a direct path to a repeater is not possible is “knife-edge”

difraction. You might be able to use this phenomenon to get your signal around a building in an urban setting.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing efects might cause radio signals to be heard despite obstructions between the transmitting and receiving stations? (T3C05) ANSWxR: Knife-edge vdifraction

Mobile operation has its own unique chal enges as your transmitter location is constantly changing.

Tis means that the signal at the receiving station constantly changes as wel .

QUxSTION: What term is commonly used to describe the rapid futtering sound sometimes heard from mobile stations that are moving while transmitting? (T3A06) ANSWxR: Picket vfencing

Another condition that could impede the transmission of VHF and UHF signals is vegetation. So, keep your antennas out of trees or above trees.

QUxSTION: Why might the range of VHF and UHF signals be greater in the winter?

(T3A02)

ANSWxR: Less vabsorption vby veegetation

Antenna polarization is important at VHF and UHF frequencies. How you mount an antenna directly afects its polarization

QUxSTION: What property of a radio wave is used to describe its polarization? (T3B02) ANSWxR: The vorientation vof vthe velectric vfield

QUxSTION: What can happen if the antennas at opposite ends of a VHF or UHF line of sight radio link are not using the same polarization? (T3A04)

ANSWxR: Signals vcould vbe vsignificantly vweaker

When using a repeater, vertical polarization is most often used. So, when using a handheld transceiver, make sure to hold it so that your antenna is vertical y oriented.

Diferent activities use diferent antenna polarizations.

QUxSTION: What antenna polarization is normal y used for long-distance weak-signal CW and SSB contacts using the VHF and UHF bands? (T3A03)

ANSWxR: Horizontal

Te reason for this is that weak signal operators are often using what are cal ed beam antennas, and it’s 28

much easier to mount and operate beam antennas horizontal y than it is to mount them vertical y.

xven though VHF communications are most often line-of-sight, there are times when it’s possible to communicate over long distances. Sometimes, VHF signals will bounce of the x layer of the ionosphere. Tis phenomenon is cal ed “sporadic x” because it happens only sporadical y.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing propagation types is most commonly associated with occasional strong over-the-horizon signals on the 10, 6, and 2 meter bands? (T3C04) ANSWxR: Sporadic vE

Other interesting propagation phenomena at VHF frequencies include auroral refection, meteor scatter, tropospheric scatter, and tropospheric ducting. Bouncing signals of the earth’s aurora is very interesting.

QUxSTION: What is a characteristic of VHF signals received via auroral refection?

(T3C03)

ANSWxR: The vsignals vexhibit vrapid vfuctuations vof vstrength vand voften vsound vdistorted Some hams also bounce signals of meteor showers. Tis propagation mode is cal ed meteor scatter.

QUxSTION: What band is best suited to communicating via meteor scatter? (T3C07) ANSWxR: 6 vmeter vband

One question that I get from people not knowledgeable about amateur radio is whether or not the weather afects radio wave propagation. Te short answer is no, but the exception to the rule is tropospheric ducting or tropospheric scatter. Te troposphere is the lowest region of the atmosphere, extending from the earth’s surface to a height of about 6–10 km.

QUxSTION: What mode is responsible for al owing over-the-horizon VHF and UHF

communications to ranges of approximately 300 miles on a regular basis? (T3C06) ANSWxR: Tropospheric vscatter

QUxSTION: What causes tropospheric ducting? (T3C08)

ANSWxR: Temperature vineersions vin vthe vatmosphere

Tropospheric ducting can also propagate VHF signals for many hundreds of miles.

Another exception to the rule occurs at microwave frequencies. Precipitation, including rain, snow, or ice can absorb microwave signals, especial y at frequencies above 11 eHz. Tis phenomenon is cal ed rain fade.

QUxSTION: What weather condition would decrease range at microwave frequencies?

(T3A13)

ANSWxR: Precipitation

29

At lower frequencies, precipitation has little or no efect.

QUxSTION: How might fog and light rain afect radio range on the 10 meter and 6 meter bands? (T3A12)

ANSWxR: Fog vand vlight vrain vwill vhaee vlittle vefect von vthese vbands 30

HF Propagation

For reliable long-distance communications, amateurs use the HF frequencies. Te reason for this is that HF signals bounce of the ionosphere. Tis phenomenon al ows amateur radio operators to contact other amateur radio stations around the world.

Te ionosphere is created by solar radiation, which creates a high concentration of ions and free electrons that refect radio waves. It extends from about 50 to 600 miles above the earth’s surface. Tere are three ionospheric layers—the D, x, and F layers—with the D layer being closest to the xarth, and the F layer being the layer farthest from the surface of the xarth.

QUxSTION: Which part of the atmosphere enables the propagation of radio signals around the world? (T3A11)

ANSWxR: The vionosphere

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an advantage of HF vs VHF and higher frequencies? (T3C02)

ANSWxR: Long vdistance vionospheric vpropagation vis vfar vmore vcommon von vHF

One interesting phenomenon that is related to HF propagation is the sunspot cycle. eeneral y, the number of sunspots increases and decreases over an 11-year cycle, and HF propagation, especial y on the higher frequency HF bands, is best at times when there are many sunspots.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing bands may provide long distance communications during the peak of the sunspot cycle? (T3C10)

ANSWxR: 6 vor v10 vmeter vbands

Because of the way that the ionosphere changes throughout the day, propagation is best on the higher frequency bands (10m, 15m and 20m) during the day, while propagation is best on the lower frequency bands (160m, 80m, 40m) at night.

QUxSTION: What is general y the best time for long-distance 10 meter band propagation via the F layer? (T3C09)

ANSWxR: From vdawn vto vshortly vafter vsunset vduring vperiods vof vhigh vsunspot vactieity A common phenomenon of HF signal propagation is fading.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a likely cause of irregular fading of signals received by ionospheric refection? (T3A08)

ANSWxR: Random vcombining vof vsignals varrieing veia vdiferent vpaths Tis is similar to multi-path distortion of VHF and UHF signals, but in this case, the signals are bouncing of the ionosphere, and because the ionosphere is constantly changing, signals fade in and out.

31

Antenna polarization is not as important when operating on the HF bands as it is when operating on the VHF/UHF bands.. Tis is because signals “skip” of the ionosphere and become neither horizontal y polarized, nor vertical y polarized, but el iptical y polarized.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing results from the fact that skip signals refracted from the ionosphere are el iptical y polarized? (T3A09)

ANSWxR: Either veertically vor vhorizontally vpolarized vantennas vmay vbe vused vfor v transmission vor vreception

32

Antennas and feed lines

Antenna types and antenna polarization

Te most common, and perhaps the simplest, antenna is the half-wave dipole antenna. As the name suggests, it measures close to one half wavelength from one end of the antenna to the other. Because half-wave dipole antennas can be quite long—a 40m half-wave dipole antenna, for example, is about 66

feet long—they are normal y mounted horizontal y between two vertical supports.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing describes a simple dipole oriented paral el to the xarth’s surface? (T9A03)

ANSWxR: A vhorizontally vpolarized vantenna

When putting up a dipole antenna, you should consider the orientation of the antenna because it radiates better in some directions than others.

QUxSTION: In which direction does a half-wave dipole antenna radiate the strongest signal? (T9A10)

ANSWxR: Broadside vto vthe vantenna

So, for example, if you live in Kansas, you might want to orient the antenna so that the wire runs north to south. Te antenna will then radiate best east and west, meaning that you’l be able to cover most of the U.S.

Te length of a dipole antenna is actual y about 5 shorter than the value that you would calculate using the formula wavelength (m) = 300 / frequency (MHz). Te reason for this is that there will be some stray capacitance between the wire and the ground and other objects near the antenna. Let’s take a look at an example.

QUxSTION: What is the approximate length, in inches, of a half-wavelength 6 meter dipole antenna? (T9A09)

ANSWxR: 112

Here’s how to make this calculation. One half wavelength is 3 m. 3 m x 39.4 in/m = 118.2 inches.

Since the length of the antenna is about 5 shorter than this calculated value, the approximate length of the antenna will be 118.2 inches x 0.95, or about 112 inches.

Once you have built a dipole antenna, chances are it won't be resonant on the frequency you want. To tune the antenna, you need to determine its resonant frequency and then make it longer or shorter.

QUxSTION: How would you change a dipole antenna to make it resonant on a higher frequency? (T9A05)

ANSWxR: Shorten vit

Conversely, to make it resonant on a lower frequency, you lengthen the antenna. Te fnal length will depend on the height at which you mount the antenna and any trees or buildings that are nearby.

33

Perhaps the second-most popular type of amateur radio antenna is the quarter-wave vertical antenna.

Te radiator of a vertical antenna is mounted perpendicular to the xarth. Tis makes it vertical y-polarized, because the electric feld will have the same orientation as the antenna’s radiator.

Like the half-wave dipole antenna, the length of a quarter-wave vertical antenna will be about 5

shorter than the calculated quarter wavelength.

QUxSTION: What is the approximate length, in inches, of a quarter-wavelength vertical antenna for 146 MHz? (T9A08)

ANSWxR: 19

Te wavelength of a 146 MHz radio wave is approximately 2 m. One quarter of a wavelength is therefore 0.5 m. 0.5 m x 39.4 in/m = 19.7 in. 19.7 in x 0.95 ≈ 19 in.

Because HF antennas can be very long, many amateurs use a technique cal ed “loading” to shorten them. You can use either inductors or capacitors to load an antenna, but the most common way is to use an inductor. In either case, loading an antenna makes it seem electrical y longer to a signal at the antenna feed point.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing describes a type of antenna loading? (T9A02) ANSWxR: Inserting van vinductor vin vthe vradiating vportion vof vthe vantenna vto vmake vit v electrically vlonger

While this technique does al ow you to shorten an antenna, the shortened antenna wil not be as efcient as a ful -size antenna.

Many amateurs use directional, or beam, antennas. Tere are many diferent types of beam antennas, including the Yagi, the quad, and the dish antenna. Tey focus the power that is applied to them in a particular direction, and are therefore said to have “gain” in that direction. What this means is that they will output more power in a particular direction than say a dipole or vertical antenna.

QUxSTION: What is a beam antenna? (T9A01)

ANSWxR: An vantenna vthat vconcentrates vsignals vin vone vdirection QUxSTION: What type of antennas are the quad, Yagi, and dish? (T9A06) ANSWxR: Directional vantennas

QUxSTION: What is the gain of an antenna? (T9A11)

ANSWxR: The vincrease vin vsignal vstrength vin va vspecified vdirection vcompared vto va v reference vantenna

34

Most handheld VHF and UHF transceivers come with what’s cal ed a “rubber duck” antenna. Rubber duck antennas use inductive loading to make them shorter than a ful -sized antenna. Loading them like this makes them less efcient than a ful -sized quarter-wavelength vertical antenna.

QUxSTION: What is a disadvantage of the “rubber duck” antenna supplied with most handheld radio transceivers when compared to a ful -sized quarter-wave antenna? (T9A04) ANSWxR: It vdoes vnot vtransmit vor vreceiee vas vefectieely QUxSTION: What is a disadvantage of using a handheld VHF transceiver, with its integral antenna, inside a vehicle? (T9A07)

ANSWxR: Signals vmight vnot vpropagate vwell vdue vto vthe vshielding vefect vof vthe veehicle Tink about it. If the antenna is inside the vehicle, the metal frame wil prevent some of your signal from getting outside the vehicle and block some of the signal from a repeater or other station from reaching the antenna.

A better option is to use an external y-mounted antenna. A popular choice for external y-mounted mobile antennas is the 5/8-wavelength vertical antenna.

QUxSTION: What is an advantage of using a properly mounted 5/8 wavelength antenna for VHF or UHF mobile service? (T9A12)

ANSWxR: It vhas va vlower vradiation vangle vand vmore vgain vthan va v1/4 vwaeelength vantenna 35

Feed lines and connectors

Feed lines connect radios to antennas. Tere are many diferent types of feed lines, including coaxial cable, ladder line, twin lead, and open-wire feed line, but coaxial cable is the most common type.

QUxSTION: Why is coaxial cable the most common feed line selected for amateur radio antenna systems? (T9B03)

ANSWxR: It vis veasy vto vuse vand vrequires vfew vspecial vinstallation vconsiderations Perhaps the most important consideration when choosing a feed line is to match the impedance of the feed line to the output impedance of the transmitter and the input impedance of the antenna.

QUxSTION: What is impedance? (T5C12)

ANSWxR: A vmeasure vof vthe vopposition vto vAC vcurrent vfow vin va vcircuit QUxSTION: What is a unit of impedance? (T5C13)

ANSWxR: Ohms

Most amateur radio transmitters have an output impedance of 50 ohms, and most antennas have an input impedance close to 50 ohms. Because this is the case, most coaxial cable used in amateur radio stations has an impedance of 50 ohms.

QUxSTION: What is the impedance of most coaxial cables used in amateur radio instal ations? (T9B02)

ANSWxR: 50 vohms

Re-58 and Re-8 are two types of coaxial cable often used in amateur radio stations. Both have an impedance of 50 ohms.

Coaxial cable does, however, have some disadvantages. One of them is that it may be lossy at high frequencies.

QUxSTION: In general, what happens as the frequency of a signal passing through coaxial cable is increased? (T9B05)

ANSWxR: The vloss vincreases

QUxSTION: What is the electrical diference between Re-58 and Re-8 coaxial cable?

(T9B10)

ANSWxR: RG-8 vcable vhas vless vloss vat va vgieen vfrequency In general, the smal er the diameter of the coaxial cable, the higher the losses wil be at higher frequencies. And, the longer the feed line, the higher the losses. So, for example, using Re-58 coax as the feed line for an 80 m dipole might be just fne, but you don’t want to use 50 feet of Re-58 to connect your 440 MHz FM transceiver to an antenna on your roof or on a tower.

xven Re-8 coaxial cable is not real y the best choice for use at VHF and UHF frequencies. Most 36

repeaters, for example, use air-insulated hard line coaxial cable for the feed line.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing types of feed line has the lowest loss at VHF and UHF? (T9B11)

ANSWxR: Air-insulated vhard vline

Another disadvantage of coaxial cable is that it is more sensitive to moisture than other types of feed lines.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is the most common cause for failure of coaxial cables? (T7C09)

ANSWxR: Moisture vcontamination

One way that moisture enters a cable is via cracks in the cable’s outer jacket.

QUxSTION: Why should the outer jacket of coaxial cable be resistant to ultraviolet light?

(T7C10)

ANSWxR: Ultraeiolet vlight vcan vdamage vthe vjacket vand vallow vwater vto venter vthe vcable Air-insulated hard line is also susceptible to moisture problems.

QUxSTION: What is a disadvantage of air core coaxial cable when compared to foam or solid dielectric types? (T7C11)

ANSWxR: It vrequires vspecial vtechniques vto vpreeent vwater vabsorption PL-259 connectors are the most common type of connectors used on coaxial cables in amateur radio stations.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is true of PL-259 type coax connectors? (T9B07) ANSWxR: They vare vcommonly vused vat vHF vfrequencies

One problem with PL-259 connectors is that they are not the most suitable connector when operating at higher frequencies. Type N connectors are a much better choice for UHF frequencies.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing connectors is most suitable for frequencies above 400 MHz? (T9B06)

ANSWxR: A vType vN vconnector

Another problem with PL-259 connectors is that they are not waterproof. If instal ed outdoors, water can get into the coaxial cable if it is not sealed in some way. Tis can lead to increased loss and eventual failure.

QUxSTION: Why should coax connectors exposed to the weather be sealed against water intrusion? (T9B08)

ANSWxR: To vpreeent van vincrease vin vfeed vline vloss

37

Coaxial cable connectors can be a real pain to instal properly and are a frequent cause of failure. When instal ing a feed line, make sure that your coaxial connectors are soldered properly and that they make solid connections with one another.

QUxSTION: What can cause erratic changes in SWR readings? (T9B09) ANSWxR: A vloose vconnection vin van vantenna vor va vfeed vline 38

Standing wave ratio and antenna measurements Standing wave ratio, or SWR, is a term you’l often hear when talking about antennas and feed lines. It is a measure of how wel -matched a feed line is to an antenna. When we say that an antenna is matched to a transmission line, we mean that the impedance of the transmission line is equal to the impedance of the antenna.

QUxSTION: What, in general terms, is standing wave ratio (SWR)? (T7C03) ANSWxR: A vmeasure vof vhow vwell va vload vis vmatched vto va vtransmission vline In this context, the “load” is the antenna.

Te higher the SWR, the greater the mismatch between the antenna and the transmission line.

QUxSTION: What reading on an SWR meter indicates a perfect impedance match between the antenna and the feed line? (T7C04)

ANSWxR: 1 vto v1

QUxSTION: What does an SWR reading of 4:1 indicate? (T7C06)

ANSWxR: Impedance vmismatch

When the feed line impedance matches the antenna input impedance, the SWR will be low. Te reason this is a good thing is that when the feed line impedance matches the antenna input impedance, the most power is transferred to the antenna and radiated.

QUxSTION: Why is it important to have low SWR when using coaxial cable feed line?

(T9B01)

ANSWxR: To vreduce vsignal vloss

Te bigger the mismatch is between the feed line and the load, the higher the SWR will be. Te higher the SWR, the more power you will lose in the feed line.

QUxSTION: What happens to power lost in a feed line? (T7C07)

ANSWxR: It vis vconeerted vinto vheat

Power converted into heat is not radiated by the antenna, meaning your radiated signal will be weaker.

You can measure the SWR of your antenna system with an SWR meter. You usual y connect the SWR

meter between the transmitter and antenna, near the output of your transmitter because it is important to have a low SWR at that point.

QUxSTION: What is the proper location for an external SWR meter? (T4A05) ANSWxR: In vseries vwith vthe vfeed vline, vbetween vthe vtransmitter vand vantenna Most amateur radio transceivers today wil reduce output power should the SWR of the antenna system get too high. Te reason for this is to protect the radio from being damaged by refected power.

39

QUxSTION: Why do most solid-state amateur radio transmitters reduce output power as SWR increases? (T7C05)

ANSWxR: To vprotect vthe voutput vamplifier vtransistors

An SWR meter is not the only way to measure SWR.

QUxSTION: What instrument other than an SWR meter could you use to determine if a feed line and antenna are properly matched? (T7C08)

ANSWxR: Directional vwattmeter

When using a directional wattmeter, you frst measure the forward power, then the refected power, and using those two values, calculate the SWR.

Another test instrument that you can use to measure the SWR of an antenna system is the antenna analyzer.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing instruments can be used to determine if an antenna is resonant at the desired operating frequency? (T7C02)

ANSWxR: An vantenna vanalyzer

Some antenna analyzers will also let you measure capacitive reactance and inductive reactance, and also be used as an RF signal generator. Tese capabilities may be useful in applications other than antenna analysis.

If an antenna's impedance is not 50 ohms, the impedance at the transmitter end of a feed line will not be 50 ohms. Don't worry, though. You can use a device cal ed an antenna tuner or antenna coupler to transform the impedance from whatever it happens to be to 50 ohms. We cal this process impedance matching.

QUxSTION: What is the major function of an antenna tuner (antenna coupler)? (T9B04) ANSWxR: It vmatches vthe vantenna vsystem vimpedance vto vthe vtransceieer’s voutput v impedance

In addition to instruments that make antenna measurements, it's helpful to have an instrument that can simulate an antenna. Tat's the purpose of a dummy load. Basical y, a dummy load is just a big 50 Ω

resistor that provides a known impedance to the transmitter and converts the transmitter output power into heat so that it does not get radiated. If a transmitter operates normal y when a dummy load is connected to it, you can be reasonably sure that your transmitter is good.

QUxSTION: What is the primary purpose of a dummy load? (T7C01)

ANSWxR: To vpreeent vtransmitting vsignals voeer vthe vair vwhen vmaking vtests QUxSTION: What does a dummy load consist of? (T7C12)

40

ANSWxR: A vnon-inductiee vresistor vand va vheat vsink 41

Amateur radio signals

Modulation modes and signal bandwidth

Modulation is the process of adding information to a radio wave. For example, to send a voice signal, you modulate the radio wave with your voice. Tere are several diferent types of modulation, but when you get your Technician license, chances are that frequency modulation, or FM, is the type of modulation that you’l use frst. When you frequency modulate a radio, the audio actual y changes the frequency of the radio wave a little in proportion to the volume of the audio signal. An FM receiver detects this frequency change and recreates the audio.

QUxSTION: Which type of modulation is most commonly used for VHF and UHF voice repeaters? (T8A04)

ANSWxR: FM

QUxSTION: What type of modulation is most commonly used for VHF packet radio transmissions? (T8A02)

ANSWxR: FM

Amplitude modulation, or AM, is another type of modulation. To amplitude modulate a signal, you vary the amplitude of the signal in proportion to the audio level. Single-sideband, or SSB, is a form of amplitude modulation.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a form of amplitude modulation? (T8A01) ANSWxR: Single vsideband

QUxSTION: Which type of voice mode is most often used for long-distance (weak signal) contacts on the VHF and UHF bands? (T8A03)

ANSWxR: SSB

QUxSTION: Where may SSB phone be used in amateur bands above 50 MHz? (T2B13) ANSWxR: In vat vleast vsome vportion vof vall vthese vbands

A single-sideband signal may be upper-sideband (USB) or lower-sideband (LSB).

QUxSTION: Which sideband is normal y used for 10 meter HF, VHF, and UHF single-sideband communications? (T8A06)

ANSWxR: Upper vsideband

Te audio of an FM signal sounds better than an AM signal, but it occupies a wider bandwidth than an AM or single sideband signal. Tis means that you can have fewer FM signals in a given frequency range than SSB signals.

QUxSTION: What is an advantage of single sideband (SSB) over FM for voice transmissions? (T8A07)

ANSWxR: SSB vsignals vhaee vnarrower vbandwidth

42

QUxSTION: What is the approximate bandwidth of a single sideband (SSB) voice signal?

(T8A08)

ANSWxR: 3 vkHz

QUxSTION: What is the approximate bandwidth of a VHF repeater FM phone signal?

(T8A09)

ANSWxR: Between v10 vand v15 vkHz

Some modes have very wide bandwidths, such as analog, fast-scan TV.

QUxSTION: What is the typical bandwidth of analog fast-scan TV transmissions on the 70 centimeter band? (T8A10)

ANSWxR: About v6 vMHz

QUxSTION: What type of transmission is indicated by the term “NTSC?” (T8D04) ANSWxR: An vanalog vfast vscan vcolor vTV vsignal

NTSC stands for National Television Standards Committee.

Morse Code, or CW, signals have a narrower bandwidth than either AM or FM.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing types of emission has the narrowest bandwidth?

(T8A05)

ANSWxR: CW

QUxSTION: What is the approximate maximum bandwidth required to transmit a CW

signal? (T8A11)

ANSWxR: 150 vHz

Technicians have CW privileges on the 80m, 40m, 15m, and 10m bands, as wel as al the VHF, UHF, and microwave bands.

QUxSTION: What code is used when sending CW in the amateur bands? (T8D09) ANSWxR: International vMorse

QUxSTION: What is an electronic keyer? (T8D14)

ANSWxR: A vdeeice vthat vassists vin vmanual vsending vof vMorse vcode 43

44

45

Digital modes: packet, PSK31

When hams talk about “digital modes,” we are talking about modes that send digital data rather than voice or other types of analog signals, such as television. Usual y, we connect our transceivers to a computer to modulate and demodulate the digital signals, but some transceivers can do this internal y.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a digital communications mode? (T8D01) ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Packet radio

•

Ixxx 802.11

•

JT65

Packet radio was one of the frst digital modes. It is cal ed packet radio because the data to be sent from station to station are separated into a number of packets which are then sent separately by the transmitting station and received and re-assembled by the receiving station.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing may be included in packet transmissions? (T8D08) ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

A check sum which permits error detection

•

A header that contains the cal sign of the station to which the information is being sent

•

Automatic repeat request in case of error

Some amateur radio digital communications systems use protocols which ensure error-free communications. One such system is cal ed an automatic repeat request, or ARQ, transmission system.

QUxSTION: What is an ARQ transmission system? (T8D11)

ANSWxR: A vdigital vscheme vwhereby vthe vreceieing vstation vdetects verrors vand vsends va v request vto vthe vsending vstation vto vretransmit vthe vinformation APRS is one service that uses packet radio. Te major application of APRS is to send location reports while operating a mobile amateur radio station.

QUxSTION: What does the term “APRS” mean? (T8D02)

ANSWxR: Automatic vPacket vReporting vSystem

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an application of APRS (Automatic Packet Reporting System)? (T8D05)

ANSWxR: Proeiding vreal-time vtactical vdigital vcommunications vin vconjunction vwith va v map vshowing vthe vlocations vof vstations

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing devices is used to provide data to the transmitter 46

when sending automatic position reports from a mobile amateur radio station? (T8D03) ANSWxR: A vGlobal vPositioning vSystem vreceieer

A popular digital mode on the HF bands is PSK31. PSK31 signals are modulated by shifting the phase of the tone being sent.

QUxSTION: What does the abbreviation “PSK” mean? (T8D06)

ANSWxR: Phase vShift vKeying

Te “31” in PSK31 comes from the fact that data is transmitted and received at about 31 baud and that the bandwidth of a PSK31 signal is only about 31 Hz. Fortunately, that is about how fast most people can type.

Digital Mobile Radio, or DMR, is an FM digital communications system that’s become quite popular in amateur radio. It al ows amateur radio operators to use the spectrum more efciently by multiplexing two signals in a single 12.5 kHz repeater channel. It also al ows amateur radio operators to connect with one another over the internet.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing best describes DMR (Digital Mobile Radio)?

(T8D07)

ANSWxR: A vtechnique vfor vtime-multiplexing vtwo vdigital veoice vsignals von va vsingle v12.5

kHz vrepeater vchannel

One of the interesting things about operating DMR is the ability to join a “talk group.” A talk group is a virtual channel that connects radio users local y over a repeater or state-wide, national y, or international y over the internet.

QUxSTION: What is a “talk group” on a DMR digital repeater? (T2B09) ANSWxR: A vway vfor vgroups vof vusers vto vshare va vchannel vat vdiferent vtimes vwithout v being vheard vby vother vusers von vthe vchannel

QUxSTION: How can you join a digital repeater’s “talk group”? (T2B07) ANSWxR: Program vyour vradio vwith vthe vgroup’s vID vor vcode WSJT software is software that provides weak-signal digital communication modes on amateur radio frequencies. To communicate with one of the digital modes that WSJT software provides, you need a single sideband transceiver and a personal computer with a sound card.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing operating activities is supported by digital mode software in the WSJT suite? (T8D10)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Moonbounce or xarth-Moon-xarth

47

•

Weak-signal propagation beacons

•

Meteor scatter

FT8 is one of the modes supported by WSJT.

QUxSTION: What is FT8? (T8D13)

ANSWxR: A vdigital vmode vcapable vof voperating vin vlow vsignal-to-noise vconditions vthat v transmits von v15-second vintereals

Mesh networking is another amateur radio activity that’s becoming popular. Mesh networks use WiFi frequencies that just happen to be part of the 2.4 eHz, 3.4 eHz, and 5.8 eHz amateur radio bands.

Mesh networks al ow amateur radio stations to establish digital communications links for supporting high-speed emergency communications and internet connectivity. Broadband-Hamnet and Amateur Radio xmergency Data Network (ARxDN) are two projects that use mesh networking to provide digital communications.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing best describes Broadband-Hamnet(TM), also referred to as a high-speed multi-media network? (T8D12)

ANSWxR: An vamateur-radio-based vdata vnetwork vusing vcommercial vWi-Fi vgear vwith v modified vfirmware

48

Electrical safety

Power circuits and hazards, hazardous voltages, fuses and circuit breakers, grounding, and battery safety

BE vSAFE!

When operating or working on amateur radio equipment, it’s possible to come into contact with dangerous voltages and currents. People have died working on high-voltage circuits. Because it would be a shame to lose a single person, it’s important to know how to be safe when working with electricity.

30 volts is the commonly accepted value for the lowest voltage that can cause a dangerous electric shock, and only 100 mA fowing through the body can cause death. Tese are not very large values.

QUxSTION: What health hazard is presented by electrical current fowing through the body? (T0A02)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

It may cause injury by heating tissue

•

It may disrupt the electrical functions of cel s

•

It may cause involuntary muscle contractions

Start by ensuring that your amateur radio station has three-wire electrical outlets that are properly grounded. When properly wired, three-wire electrical outlets and plugs are safer than two-wire outlets and plugs, and you should use three-wire plugs for al of your amateur radio equipment. Te third wire provides an independent, or safety ground.

QUxSTION: In the United States, what is connected to the green wire in a three-wire electrical AC plug? (T0A03)

ANSWxR: Equipment vground

QUxSTION: What is a good way to guard against electrical shock at your station?

(T0A06)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Use three-wire cords and plugs for al AC powered equipment

•

Connect al AC powered station equipment to a common safety ground

•

Use a circuit protected by a ground-fault interrupter

Instal ing fuses in an electrical circuit is the main way to protect a circuit from excessive current fow.

Fuses are designed to “blow” or disconnect power if the current fowing through them exceeds a specifed value.

QUxSTION: What is the purpose of a fuse in an electrical circuit? (T0A04) 49

ANSWxR: To vinterrupt vpower vin vcase vof voeerload When replacing a fuse, always replace the blown fuse with a fuse of the same type and value.

QUxSTION: Why is it unwise to instal a 20-ampere fuse in the place of a 5-ampere fuse?

(T0A05)

ANSWxR: Excessiee vcurrent vcould vcause va vfire

If you plan to build your own equipment, be sure to include fuses in your designs.

QUxSTION: What safety equipment should always be included in home-built equipment that is powered from 120V AC power circuits? (T0A08)

ANSWxR: A vfuse vor vcircuit vbreaker vin vseries vwith vthe vAC vhot vconductor Whenever you’re working on equipment, be sure to disconnect it from the power lines, and even then be careful working around a power supply’s capacitors.

QUxSTION: What kind of hazard might exist in a power supply when it is turned of and disconnected? (T0A11)

ANSWxR: You vmight vreceiee van velectric vshock vfrom vthe vcharge vstored vin vlarge v capacitors

You also need to take precautions when using batteries to power your amateur radio station.

Conventional 12-volt storage batteries present several safety hazards.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a safety hazard of a 12-volt storage battery?

(T0A01)

ANSWxR: Shorting vthe vterminals vcan vcause vburns, vfire, vor van vexplosion QUxSTION: What can happen if a lead-acid storage battery is charged or discharged too quickly? (T0A10)

ANSWxR: The vbattery vcould voeerheat, vgiee vof vfammable vgas, vor vexplode 50

Antenna and tower safety

Antenna safety is also of primary concern. Tere are two aspects of antenna safety—being safe when instal ing an antenna and safely operating an antenna. When instal ing an antenna, make sure you note where the power lines are and stay clear of them.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an important safety precaution to observe when putting up an antenna tower? (T0B04)

ANSWxR: Look vfor vand vstay vclear vof vany voeerhead velectrical vwires QUxSTION: What is the minimum safe distance from a power line to al ow when instal ing an antenna? (T0B06)

ANSWxR: Enough vso vthat vif vthe vantenna vfalls vunexpectedly, vno vpart vof vit vcan vcome v closer vthan v10 vfeet vto vthe vpower vwires

QUxSTION: Why should you avoid attaching an antenna to a utility pole? (T0B09) ANSWxR: The vantenna vcould vcontact vhigh-eoltage vpower vlines You also should position the antenna so that no one can touch it while you are transmitting.

QUxSTION: What could happen if a person accidental y touched your antenna while you were transmitting? (T0C07)

ANSWxR: They vmight vreceiee va vpainful vRF vburn

Tere are a number of things you should keep in mind when putting up a tower and instal ing antennas on them.

QUxSTION: When should members of a tower work team wear a hard hat and safety glasses? (T0B01)

ANSWxR: At vall vtimes vwhen vany vwork vis vbeing vdone von vthe vtower QUxSTION: What is a good precaution to observe before climbing an antenna tower?

(T0B02)

ANSWxR: Put von va vcarefully vinspected vclimbing vharness v(fall varrester) vand vsafety v glasses

QUxSTION: Under what circumstances is it safe to climb a tower without a helper or observer? (T0B03)

ANSWxR: Neeer

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an important safety rule to remember when using a crank-up tower? (T0B07)

ANSWxR: This vtype vof vtower vmust vnot vbe vclimbed vunless vretracted vor vmechanical v safety vlocking vdeeices vhaee vbeen vinstalled

QUxSTION: What is the purpose of a safety wire through a turnbuckle used to tension guy lines? (T0B13)

51

ANSWxR: Preeent vloosening vof vthe vguy vline vfrom veibration And, you should use a gin pole designed for use with the tower that you’re instal ing.

QUxSTION: What is the purpose of a gin pole? (T0B05)

ANSWxR: To vlift vtower vsections vor vantennas

erounding is very important when instal ing a tower. Te tower is, after al , basical y a big lightning rod.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing establishes grounding requirements for an amateur radio tower or antenna? (T0B11)

ANSWxR: Local velectrical vcodes

QUxSTION: What is considered to be a proper grounding method for a tower? (T0B08) ANSWxR: Separate veight-foot vlong vground vrods vfor veach vtower vleg, vbonded vto vthe v tower vand veach vother

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is true when instal ing grounding conductors used for lightning protection? (T0B10)

ANSWxR: Sharp vbends vmust vbe vaeoided

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is good practice when instal ing ground wires on a tower for lightning protection? (T0B12)

ANSWxR: Ensure vthat vconnections vare vshort vand vdirect

QUxSTION: What should be done to al external ground rods or earth connections?

(T0A09)

ANSWxR: Bond vthem vtogether vwith vheaey vwire vor vconductiee vstrap Lightning can also be conducted down a feed line and into your station. To prevent this, several manufacturers make devices designed to conduct this current to ground before it gets into the station.

QUxSTION: Which of these precautions should be taken when instal ing devices for lightning protection in a coaxial cable feed line? (T0A07)

ANSWxR: Mount vall vof vthe vprotectors von va vmetal vplate vthat vis vin vturn vconnected vto van external vground vrod

52

RF hazards and radiation exposure

Over-exposure to radio waves can also be a safety hazard. When using as little as 50 watts, you may be required to perform an RF exposure evaluation for your amateur radio station, even though VHF and UHF radio signals are non-ionizing radiation.

QUxSTION: What type of radiation are VHF and UHF radio signals? (T0C01) ANSWxR: Non-ionizing vradiation

QUxSTION: How does RF radiation difer from ionizing radiation (radioactivity)?

(T0C12)

ANSWxR: RF vradiation vdoes vnot vhaee vsufcient venergy vto vcause vgenetic vdamage xven so, smal levels of RF energy can be hazardous.

QUxSTION: What is the maximum power level that an amateur radio station may use at VHF frequencies before an RF exposure evaluation is required? (T0C03) ANSWxR: 50 vwatts vPEP vat vthe vantenna

How do you perform an RF exposure evaluation?

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an acceptable method to determine that your station complies with FCC RF exposure regulations? (T0C06)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

By calculation based on FCC OxT Bul etin 65

•

By calculation based on computer modeling

•

By measurement of feld strength using calibrated equipment

One of the factors to consider when performing an RF exposure evaluation is the duty cycle of your transmissions. A transmission with a lower duty cycle would be less hazardous than a high duty cycle transmission.

QUxSTION: What is the defnition of duty cycle during the averaging time for RF

exposure? (T0C11)

ANSWxR: The vpercentage vof vtime vthat va vtransmitter vis vtransmitting QUxSTION: Why is duty cycle one of the factors used to determine safe RF radiation exposure levels? (T0C10)

ANSWxR: It vafects vthe vaeerage vexposure vof vpeople vto vradiation Consider this example.

QUxSTION: If the averaging time for exposure is 6 minutes, how much power density is permitted if the signal is present for 3 minutes and absent for 3 minutes rather than being present for the entire 6 minutes? (T0C13)

53

ANSWxR: 2 vtimes vas vmuch

Because of the way radio waves interact with the body, the exposure limits are diferent for each amateur radio band.

QUxSTION: Why do exposure limits vary with frequency? (T0C05)

ANSWxR: The vhuman vbody vabsorbs vmore vRF venergy vat vsome vfrequencies vthan vat v others

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing frequencies has the lowest value for Maximum Permissible xxposure limit? (T0C02)

ANSWxR: 50 vMHz

QUxSTION: What factors afect the RF exposure of people near an amateur station antenna? (T0C04)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Frequency and power level of the RF feld

•

Distance from the antenna to a person

•

Radiation pattern of the antenna

So, what should you do if your RF exposure evaluation shows that people are being exposed to excessive RF?

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing actions might amateur operators take to prevent exposure to RF radiation in excess of FCC-supplied limits? (T0C08) ANSWxR: Relocate vantennas

You could also lower the power or simply transmit less.

You should regularly evaluate your station for RF safety.

QUxSTION: How can you make sure your station stays in compliance with RF safety regulations? (T0C09)

ANSWxR: By vre-eealuating vthe vstation vwheneeer van vitem vof vequipment vis vchanged 54

Amateur radio practices and station setup

Station setup: connecting microphones, reducing unwanted emissions, power sources, connecting a computer, RF grounding, connecting digital equipment

When setting up an amateur radio station, choosing the radio is the most important consideration, but you must also choose a wide range of accessories, such as power supplies and microphones. In addition, how you connect al these pieces of equipment together is important for your station to operate properly. For example, the cable connecting the power supply to the radio should be made with heavy-gauge wire.

QUxSTION: Why should wiring between the power source and radio be heavy-gauge wire and kept as short as possible? (T4A03)

ANSWxR: To vaeoid veoltage vfalling vbelow vthat vneeded vfor vproper voperation When choosing a power supply, check the voltage and current ratings of the supply and be sure to choose one capable of supplying a high enough voltage and enough current to power your radio.

QUxSTION: What must be considered to determine the minimum current capacity needed for a transceiver power supply? (T4A01)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

xfciency of the transmitter at ful power output

•

Receiver and control circuit power

•

Power supply regulation and heat dissipation

A computer has become a common accessory in many amateur radio stations. Amateurs use them to operate digital modes, log contacts, and design circuits and antennas. I even use mine to Twitter while I’m on the air.

QUxSTION: How might a computer be used as part of an amateur radio station?

(T4A02)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

For logging contacts and contact information

•

For sending and/or receiving CW

•

For generating and decoding digital signals

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing connections might be used between a voice transceiver and a computer for digital operation? (T4A06)

ANSWxR: Receiee vaudio, vtransmit vaudio, vand vpush-to-talk v(PTT) 55

QUxSTION: Which computer sound card port is connected to a transceiver’s headphone or speaker output for operating digital modes? (T4A04)

ANSWxR: Microphone vor vline vinput

QUxSTION: How is a computer’s sound card used when conducting digital communications? (T4A07)

ANSWxR: The vsound vcard vproeides vaudio vto vthe vmicrophone vinput vand vconeerts v receieed vaudio vto vdigital vform

Audio and power supply cables in an amateur radio station sometimes pick up stray RF. At minimum, this RF can cause the audio to be noisy. At worst, it can cause a radio or accessory to malfunction.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing could you use to cure distorted audio caused by RF

current on the shield of a microphone cable? (T4A09)

ANSWxR: Ferrite vchoke

eood grounding techniques can help you avoid interference problems. When grounding your equipment, you should connect the various pieces of equipment to a single point, keep leads short, and use a heavy conductor to connect to ground.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing conductors provides the lowest impedance to RF

signals? (T4A08)

ANSWxR: Flat vstrap

If you plan to instal a radio in your car and operate mobile, you have a diferent set of chal enges. One is connecting the radio to the car’s power system. Some amateurs connect their radio with a cigarette lighter plug, but this plug is not designed for high currents. For permanent instal ations, you need to make solid connections at the appropriate points.

QUxSTION: Where should the negative return connection of a mobile transceiver’s power cable be connected? (T4A11)

ANSWxR: At vthe vbattery vor vengine vblock vground vstrap

Te positive connection can also be made at the battery or through an unused position of the vehicle’s fuse block.

Another chal enge is noise generated by the car itself. Te alternator is often the culprit.

QUxSTION: What is the source of a high-pitched whine that varies with engine speed in a mobile transceiver’s receive audio? (T4A10)

ANSWxR: The valternator

Should this be a problem, there are flters that you can instal to mitigate the alternator whine. Some HF receivers also have the ability to reduce noise.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing could be used to remove power line noise or ignition noise? (T4B12)

56

ANSWxR: Noise vblanker

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing would reduce ignition interference to a receiver?

(T4B05)

ANSWxR: Turn von vthe vnoise vblanker

57

Operating controls: tuning, use of filters, squelch function, AGC, repeater offset, memory channels

To properly operate a transceiver, you need to know how to use the controls. Perhaps the most important transmitter control is microphone gain.

QUxSTION: What may happen if a transmitter is operated with the microphone gain set too high? (T4B01)

ANSWxR: The voutput vsignal vmight vbecome vdistorted

You also need to know how to set the operating frequency of your transceiver.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing can be used to enter the operating frequency on a modern transceiver? (T4B02)

ANSWxR: The vkeypad vor vVFO vknob

QUxSTION: What is a way to enable quick access to a favorite frequency on your transceiver? (T4B04)

ANSWxR: Store vthe vfrequency vin va vmemory vchannel

Transceivers that al ow you to store frequencies in memory often have the ability to step through those frequencies, one at a time, stopping when a signal is received. Tis is cal ed scanning and is a way to monitor many diferent frequencies automatical y.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a use for the scanning function of an FM

transceiver? (T4B13)

ANSWxR: To vscan vthrough va vrange vof vfrequencies vto vcheck vfor vactieity A common receiver control on VHF/UHF transceivers is the squelch control.

QUxSTION: What is the purpose of the squelch control on a transceiver? (T4B03) ANSWxR: To vmute vreceieer voutput vnoise vwhen vno vsignal vis vbeing vreceieed If the squelch control is set too low, the radio wil sound noisy. On the other hand, if the squelch control is set too high, then you will not be able to hear low-level signals.

Another common setting on VHF/UHF transceivers is the ofset frequency. Tis is especial y important when operating repeaters.

QUxSTION: Which is meant by “repeater ofset”? (T2A07)

ANSWxR: The vdiference vbetween vthe vrepeater’s vtransmit vfrequency vand vits vreceiee v frequency

A common receiver control on HF transceivers is the Receiver Incremental Tuning, or RIT, control. Its purpose is to set the receive frequency slightly of from the transmit frequency.

QUxSTION: What does the term “RIT” mean? (T4B07)

58

ANSWxR: Receieer vIncremental vTuning

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing controls could be used if the voice pitch of a single-sideband signal seems too high or low? (T4B06)

ANSWxR: The vreceieer vRIT vor vclarifier

Because HF signals may fade in and out, HF transceivers have a feature cal ed automatic gain control (AeC). AeC eliminates the need for the operator to continual y adjust the volume.

QUxSTION: What is the function of automatic gain control, or AeC? (T4B11) ANSWxR: To vkeep vreceieed vaudio vrelatieely vconstant

HF transceivers are often equipped with a variety of diferent flters. Using the appropriate flter for the mode you are operating can make operating a lot easier.

QUxSTION: What is the advantage of having multiple receive bandwidth choices on a multimode transceiver? (T4B08)

ANSWxR: Permits vnoise vor vinterference vreduction vby vselecting va vbandwidth vmatching v the vmode

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an appropriate receive flter bandwidth for minimizing noise and interference for SSB reception? (T4B09)

ANSWxR: 2400 vHz

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an appropriate receive flter bandwidth for minimizing noise and interference for CW reception? (T4B10)

ANSWxR: 500 vHz

A common transmitter control is push-to-talk, or PTT.

QUxSTION: What is meant by PTT? (T7A07)

ANSWxR: The vpush vto vtalk vfunction vthat vswitches vbetween vreceiee vand vtransmit Most of the time PTT refers to an actual switch on the microphone that an operator must push to begin transmitting, but it also refers to the name of a signal line on a transceiver’s accessory socket that can be used to automatical y switch a transceiver into transmit mode.

59

Station equipment

Receivers, transmitters, transceivers, modulation, transverters, low power and weak signal operation, transmit and receive amplifiers In the early days of radio, amateur radio operators used separate receivers and transmitter units.

Nowadays, however, most use radios cal ed transceivers.

QUxSTION: What is a transceiver? (T7A02)

ANSWxR: A vunit vcombining vthe vfunctions vof va vtransmitter vand va vreceieer Often, HF transceivers are used with devices cal ed transverters that convert the signals from their HF

transceiver to the VHF, UHF, and even microwave bands. Transverters take the output of an HF

transceiver, normal y set to the 10 m (28 MHz) band and output a VHF, UHF, or microwave signal.

Conversely, they receive a VHF, UHF, or microwave signal and output a signal in the 10 m band that is demodulated by the HF transceiver.

QUxSTION: What device converts the RF input and output of a transceiver to another band? (T7A06)

ANSWxR: Transeerter

Many, if not most, new amateurs buy a handheld transceiver, cal ed an “HT,” as their frst transceiver.

One disadvantage of using a handheld transceiver is that the maximum output power is general y only 5

W, and because of this, they have limited range. To get around this limitation, you can use an RF

amplifer to boost the power.

QUxSTION: What device increases the low-power output from a handheld transceiver?

(T7A10)

ANSWxR: An vRF vpower vamplifier

QUxSTION: What is the function of the SSB/CW-FM switch on a VHF power amplifer?

(T7A09)

ANSWxR: Set vthe vamplifier vfor vproper voperation vin vthe vselected vmode When talking about a transceiver’s specifcations, we stil refer to its receiver and transmitter. Te two most important specifcations for a receiver are sensitivity and selectivity.

QUxSTION: Which term describes the ability of a receiver to detect the presence of a signal? (T7A01)

ANSWxR: Sensitieity

QUxSTION: Which term describes the ability of a receiver to discriminate between multiple signals? (T7A04)

ANSWxR: Selectieity

60

To improve the sensitivity of a receiver, you can use an RF preamplifer. An RF preamplifer amplifes signals that you want to receive.

QUxSTION: Where is an RF preamplifer instal ed? (T7A11)

ANSWxR: Between vthe vantenna vand vreceieer

Many HF transceivers have some version of a superheterodyne receiver. A superheterodyne receiver converts an incoming radio signal to an intermediate frequency, or IF. Te circuit that does this is the mixer.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is used to convert a radio signal from one frequency to another? (T7A03)

ANSWxR: Mixer

When transmitting or receiving, we want to generate an RF signal with a specifc frequency. To do that, we use an oscillator.

QUxSTION: What is the name of a circuit that generates a signal at a specifc frequency?

(T7A05)

ANSWxR: Oscillator

To transmit a voice or data signal, we have to combine an audio frequency signal from the microphone with the RF carrier signal generated by the transmitter.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing describes combining speech with an RF carrier signal? (T7A08)

ANSWxR: Modulation

Modulators use a type of mixer circuit to accomplish this process.

61

Common transmitter and receiver problems: symptoms of overload and overdrive; distortion; causes of interference; interference and consumer electronics; part 15 devices; over-modulation; RF feedback; off frequency signals

Since Murphy’s Law—the law that states if anything can go wrong, it will—applies to amateur radio as much as it does to any other pursuit, at some point you wil have to deal with problems. Tese may include overload, distortion, feedback, and interference.

Let’s frst consider interference.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing can cause radio frequency interference? (T7B03) ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Fundamental overload

•

Harmonics

•

Spurious emissions.

Any of these could cause interference to a TV set or radio or even computer speakers, and you will want to take steps to fnd and eliminate that interference.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing actions should you take if a neighbor tel s you that your station’s transmissions are interfering with their radio or TV reception? (T7B06) ANSWxR: Make vsure vthat vyour vstation vis vfunctioning vproperly vand vthat vit vdoes vnot v cause vinterference vto vyour vown vradio vor vteleeision vwhen vit vis vtuned vto vthe vsame vchannel While it’s not very likely that your amateur radio station wil interfere with a neighbor’s cable TV

service, it can sometimes occur. If you are interfering with a neighbor’s cable TV service, frst check the connections.

QUxSTION: What should be the frst step to resolve cable TV interference from your ham radio transmission? (T7B12)

ANSWxR: Be vsure vall vTV vcoaxial vconnectors vare vinstalled vproperly Your amateur radio station may interfere with a nearby radio receiver if your signal is so strong that the receiver cannot reject the signal even though your signal is not on the frequency to which the receiver is tuned. Tis is cal ed overload.

QUxSTION: What would cause a broadcast AM or FM radio to receive an amateur radio transmission unintentional y? (T7B02)

ANSWxR: The vreceieer vis vunable vto vreject vstrong vsignals voutside vthe vAM vor vFM vband QUxSTION: How can overload of a non-amateur radio or TV receiver by an amateur signal be reduced or eliminated? (T7B05)

ANSWxR: Block vthe vamateur vsignal vwith va vfilter vat vthe vantenna vinput vof vthe vafected v receieer

62

Te process can work the other way, too. When driving by the antenna of a high-power broadcast station you may notice that your VHF transceiver is picking up the broadcast station signal. Tis is often the result of overload.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing can reduce overload to a VHF transceiver from a nearby FM broadcast station? (T7B07)

ANSWxR: Band-reject vfilter

Te band of frequencies that you want to reject is the band that includes the broadcast station frequency.

Another device that often experiences interference from amateur radio stations is the telephone. Te telephone wires act as antenna and the telephone itself demodulates the signal.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a way to reduce or eliminate interference from an amateur transmitter to a nearby telephone? (T7B04)

ANSWxR: Put va vRF vfilter von vthe vtelephone

Interference works both ways. Your neighbors may have wireless devices, sometimes cal ed “Part 15

devices,” that can interfere with your station.

QUxSTION: What is a Part 15 device? (T7B09)

ANSWxR: An vunlicensed vdeeice vthat vmay vemit vlow-powered vradio vsignals von v frequencies vused vby va vlicensed vsereice

QUxSTION: What should you should if something in a neighbor’s home is causing harmful interference to your amateur station? (T7B08)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Work with your neighbor to identify the ofending device

•

Politely inform your neighbor about the rules that prohibit the use of devices that cause interference

•

Check your station and make sure it meets the standards of good amateur practice Perhaps the most common problem that amateur radio operators have is distorted or noisy audio when transmitting. Tere are many reasons for poor audio.

QUxSTION: What might be a problem if you receive a report that your audio signal through the repeater is distorted or unintel igible? (T7B10)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Your transmitter is slightly of frequency

63

•

Your batteries are running low

•

You are in a bad location

QUxSTION: What is a symptom of RF feedback in a transmitter or transceiver? (T7B11) ANSWxR: Reports vof vgarbled, vdistorted, vor vunintelligible veoice vtransmissions Sometimes, garbled or distorted audio when operating FM is the result of over-deviation.

QUxSTION: What can you do if you are told your FM handheld or mobile transceiver is over-deviating? (T7B01)

ANSWxR: Talk vfarther vaway vfrom vthe vmicrophone

64

Basic repair and testing: soldering; using basic test instruments; connecting a voltmeter, ammeter, or ohmmeter

Te most common test instrument in an amateur radio shack is the multimeter. Multimeters are cal ed that because they combine the functions of a voltmeter, ohmmeter, and ammeter into a single instrument.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing measurements are commonly made using a multimeter? (T7D07)

ANSWxR: Voltage vand vresistance

Te voltmeter function of the multimeter is used to measure electromotive force, more commonly known as voltage.

QUxSTION: Which instrument would you use to measure electric potential or electromotive force? (T7D01)

ANSWxR: A veoltmeter

QUxSTION: What is the correct way to connect a voltmeter to a circuit? (T7D02) ANSWxR: In vparallel vwith vthe vcircuit

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing precautions should be taken when measuring high voltages with a voltmeter? (T7D12)

ANSWxR: Ensure vthat vthe veoltmeter vand vleads vare vrated vfor vuse vat vthe veoltages vto vbe v measured

Te ohmmeter function of a multimeter is used to measure resistance. Te way an ohmmeter measures the resistance of a circuit is by supplying a known current to the circuit, measuring the voltage across the circuit, and then calculating the resistance using Ohm's Law, R = x/I.

QUxSTION: What instrument is used to measure resistance? (T7D05) ANSWxR: An vohmmeter

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing precautions should be taken when measuring circuit resistance with an ohmmeter? (T7D11)

ANSWxR: Ensure vthat vthe vcircuit vis vnot vpowered

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing might damage a multimeter? (T7D06) ANSWxR: Attempting vto vmeasure veoltage vwhen vusing vthe vresistance vsetting QUxSTION: What is probably happening when an ohmmeter, connected across an unpowered circuit, initial y indicates a low resistance and then shows increasing resistance with time? (T7D10)

ANSWxR: The vcircuit vcontains va vlarge vcapacitor

65

Te ammeter function of a multimeter is used to measure current. You connect an ammeter in series with a circuit so that the current fowing through the circuit also fows through the ammeter.

QUxSTION: Which instrument is used to measure electric current? (T7D04) ANSWxR: An vammeter

QUxSTION: How is a simple ammeter connected to a circuit? (T7D03) ANSWxR: In vseries vwith vthe vcircuit

In addition to knowing how to make electrical measurements, knowing how to solder is an essential skil for amateur radio operators.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing types of solder is best for radio and electronic use?

(T7D08)

ANSWxR: Rosin-core vsolder

QUxSTION: What is the characteristic appearance of a cold solder joint? (T7D09) ANSWxR: A vgrainy vor vdull vsurface

We cal a poor solder joint a “cold” solder joint because it's usual y the result of not applying enough heat to the joint. When you don't apply enough heat to a solder joint, the solder does not fow smoothly between the metal surfaces to be joined and often does not make a good connection.

66

Operating Procedures

FM Operation

Once they get their licenses, most Technicians purchase a VHF/UHF FM transceiver. Tis type of radio al ows them to use repeaters and participate in public-service events.

QUxSTION: What type of amateur station simultaneously retransmits the signal of another amateur station on a diferent channel or channels? (T1F09) ANSWxR: Repeater vstation

QUxSTION: What types of amateur stations can automatical y retransmit the signals of other amateur stations? (T1D07)

ANSWxR: Repeater, vauxiliary, vor vspace vstations

To increase range of a repeater system, some repeater operators link their repeaters with other repeaters.

When linked in this way, a signal received by one repeater is retransmitted by al the other repeaters in the network. Tis can give the repeater network extremely wide coverage.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing describes a linked repeater network? (T2B14) ANSWxR: A vnetwork vof vrepeaters vwhere vsignals vreceieed vby vone vrepeater vare vrepeated v by vall vthe vrepeaters

To use repeaters, you need to know how to set up your radio. Repeaters receive on one frequency and transmit on another. You program your radio so that it receives on the repeater’s transmit frequency and transmits on the repeater’s receive frequency. Te diference between the transmit frequency and receive frequency is cal ed the repeater frequency ofset.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a common repeater frequency ofset in the 2 meter band? (T2A01)

ANSWxR: Plus vor vminus v600 vkHz

QUxSTION: What is a common repeater frequency ofset in the 70 cm band? (T2A03) ANSWxR: Plus vor vminus v5 vMHz

Because repeaters often operate in environments where there is a lot of interference, they are programmed not to operate unless the station they are receiving is also transmitting a sub- audible tone of a specifc frequency. If your radio has not been programmed to transmit the proper sub-audible tone when you transmit, the repeater wil not repeat your transmission. Tese tones are sometimes cal ed PL

(short for “private line”) tones. PL is a Motorola trademark. Te generic term for these tones is CTCSS

(short for “continuous tone-coded squelch system”).

QUxSTION: What term describes the use of a sub-audible tone transmitted along with 67

normal voice audio to open the squelch of a receiver? (T2B02) ANSWxR: CTCSS

A frequent problem is being able to hear a repeater, but not being able to access it.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing could be the reason you are unable to access a repeater whose output you can hear? (T2B04)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Improper transceiver ofset

•

Te repeater may require a proper CTCSS tone from your transceiver

•

Te repeater may require a proper DCS tone from your transceiver A Digital Code Squelch, or DCS, tone is similar to a CTCSS tone in that it is sub-audible and opens the squelch of a repeater when a station is trying to access it. Tey are, however, not very common.

Not using a CTCSS tone, or using the wrong CTCSS tone, is only one of the many problems that you may have when operating through a repeater. Not having a strong enough signal is one of them.

QUxSTION: If a station is not strong enough to keep a repeater’s receiver squelch open, which of the fol owing might al ow you to receive the station’s signal? (T2B03) ANSWxR: Listen von vthe vrepeater vinput vfrequency

One way to listen to the repeater input frequency would be to use the “reverse split” function of your VHF/UHF transceiver, if it has this feature. When enabled, the reverse split feature will cause your transceiver to transmit on the repeater output frequency and receive on the input frequency.

QUxSTION: What is the most common use of the “reverse split” function of a VHF/UHF transceiver? (T2B01)

ANSWxR: Listen von va vrepeater’s vinput vfrequency

Another problem you may encounter is over-deviation. Tis can happen if you speak too loudly into the microphone. Tis wil cause your signal to deviate too much, and that can cause distortion.

QUxSTION: What might be the problem if a repeater user says your transmissions are breaking up on voice peaks? (T2B05)

ANSWxR: You vare vtalking vtoo vloudly

In addition to knowing how to set the controls of your radio, you need to know the protocol for making contacts. When using a repeater, the protocol is very simple. Te reason for this is that signals are normal y very strong and saying your cal sign is al that is required to alert other stations that you are listening to the repeater and available for contacts.

QUxSTION: What is an appropriate way to cal another station on a repeater if you know the other station’s cal sign? (T2A04)

68

ANSWxR: Say vthe vstation’s vcall vsign, vthen videntify vwith vyour vcall vsign QUxSTION: What brief statement indicates that you are listening on a repeater and looking for a contact? (T2A09)

ANSWxR: Your vcall vsign

Repeater operation is cal ed duplex operation because you’re transmitting and receiving on two diferent frequencies. When two stations are operating on the same frequency, without the aid of a repeater, it's cal ed simplex operation. On the 2 m band, simplex channels start at 146.52 MHz. On the 70 cm band, simplex channels start at 446.00 MHz.

QUxSTION: What term describes an amateur station that is transmitting and receiving on the same frequency? (T2A11)

ANSWxR: Simplex

QUxSTION: Why are simplex channels designated in the VHF/UHF band plans?

(T2B12)

ANSWxR: So vthat vstations vwithin vmutual vcommunications vrange vcan vcommunicate v without vtying vup va vrepeater

To help amateurs operating simplex fnd one another, frequencies on each band have been set aside as

“national cal ing frequencies.” 146.52 MHz is the national cal ing frequency for FM simplex operation in the 2 m band. 446.000 MHz is the national cal ing frequency for the 70 cm band.

QUxSTION: What is the national cal ing frequency for FM simplex operations in the 2

meter band? (T2A02)

ANSWxR: 146.520 vMHz

69

HF Operation

On the HF bands, signals can be easy to copy or difcult to copy. Because this is the case, the protocol for making contacts is more complex than the repeater protocol. On HF, when you want to contact another station, you “cal CQ.” Tat is to say, you would say something like, “CQ CQ CQ. Tis is KB6NU.” Tis means that you are open to a cal from any station.

QUxSTION: What is the meaning of the procedural signal “CQ”? (T2A08) ANSWxR: Calling vany vstation

You don’t want to just start cal ing CQ willy-nilly, though.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a guideline when choosing an operating frequency for cal ing CQ? (T2A12)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Listen frst to be sure that no one else is using the frequency

•

Ask if the frequency is in use

•

Make sure you are in your assigned band

Knowing how to reply to a CQ is also important. Knowing the commonly accepted protocol will make it easier to make contacts.

QUxSTION: How should you respond to a station cal ing CQ? (T2A05) ANSWxR: Transmit vthe vother vstation’s vcall vsign vfollowed vby vyour vcall vsign For example, if W8JNZ heard my cal and wanted to talk to me, he would reply, “KB6NU this is W8JNZ. Over.” Ten, I would return the cal , and our contact would begin. If signal conditions are poor, you may want to repeat your cal sign and state your cal sign in a phonetic alphabet.

It’s important to always identify your station, even when only performing tests.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is required when making on-the-air test transmissions? (T2A06)

ANSWxR: Identify vthe vtransmitting vstation

As a Technician, you will be able to operate Morse Code on certain portions of the 80 m, 40 m, 15 m, and 10 m bands. To shorten the number of characters sent during a CW contact, amateurs often use three-letter combinations cal ed Q-signals. Q signals are three-letter combinations, beginning with the letter “Q,” that stand for commonly-used phrases. You need to know the meaning of two of these Q

signals: QRM and QSY.

QUxSTION: Which Q signal indicates that you are receiving interference from other stations? (T2B10)

70

ANSWxR: QRM

QUxSTION: Which Q signal indicates that you are changing frequency? (T2B11) ANSWxR: QSY

FCC rules specify broadly where amateur radio operators have operating privileges, but they are not very detailed. Band plans take this one step further, suggesting where amateurs should use certain modes.

QUxSTION: What is a band plan, beyond the privileges established by the FCC? (T2A10) ANSWxR: A veoluntary vguideline vfor vusing vdiferent vmodes vor vactieities vwithin van v amateur vband

While not always adhered to, another basic tenet of amateur radio is to operate courteously and avoid interfering with other stations.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing applies when two stations transmitting on the same frequency interfere with each other? (T2B08)

ANSWxR: Common vcourtesy vshould vpreeail, vbut vno vone vhas vabsolute vright vto van v amateur vfrequency

71

Public service and emergency communications

One of the reasons amateur radio exists at al is that ham radio operators are uniquely set up to provide emergency and public-service communications. As a result, many hams consider it an obligation to be prepared to help out when cal ed upon to do so. Tis includes having the proper equipment and knowing the proper operating procedures. Tere are two organizations that provide emergency communications: the Radio Amateur Civil xmergency Service (RACxS) and the Amateur Radio xmergency Service (ARxS).

QUxSTION: What is the Amateur Radio xmergency Service (ARxS)? (T2C12) ANSWxR: Licensed vamateurs vwho vhaee veoluntarily vregistered vtheir vqualifications vand v equipment vfor vcommunications vduty vin vthe vpublic vsereice QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing describes the Radio Amateur Civil xmergency Service (RACxS)? (T1A10)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

A radio service using amateur frequencies for emergency management or civil defense communications

•

A radio service using amateur stations for emergency management or civil defense communications

•

An emergency service using amateur operators certifed by a civil defense organization as being enrol ed in that organization

QUxSTION: What do RACxS and ARxS have in common? (T2C04)

ANSWxR: Both vorganizations vmay vproeide vcommunications vduring vemergencies When an emergency occurs, it’s common for amateur radio operators to form a network or “net” to facilitate emergency communications. Te net is led by the net control station, or NCS, whose job it is to make sure that messages are passed in an efcient and timely manner. Stations other than the net control station are said to “check into” the net.

QUxSTION: What is meant by the term “NCS” used in net operation? (T2C02) ANSWxR: Net vControl vStation

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an accepted practice for an amateur operator who has checked into a net? (T2C07)

ANSWxR: Remain von vfrequency vwithout vtransmitting vuntil vasked vto vdo vso vby vthe vnet v control vstation

Tere are, however, times when a station may need to get the immediate attention of the net control station.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an accepted practice to get the immediate attention of a net control station when reporting an emergency? (T2C06) 72

ANSWxR: Begin vyour vtransmission vby vsaying v“Priority” vor v“Emergency” vfollowed vby v your vcall vsign

Te term for messages passed between stations in a net is “trafc,” and the process of passing messages to and from amateur radio stations is cal ed “handling trafc.”

QUxSTION: What does the term “trafc” refer to in net operation? (T2C05) ANSWxR: Formal vmessages vexchanged vby vnet vstations

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a characteristic of good trafc handling? (T2C08) ANSWxR: Passing vmessages vexactly vas vreceieed

QUxSTION: What should be done when using voice modes to ensure that voice messages containing unusual words are received correctly? (T2C03)

ANSWxR: Spell vthe vwords vusing va vstandard vphonetic valphabet Formal trafc messages consists of four parts: preamble, address, text, signature. Part of the preamble is the check. Te address is the name and address of the intended recipient, the text is the message itself, and the signature is the part of the message that identifes the originator of the message.

QUxSTION: What information is contained in the preamble of a formal trafc message?

(T2C10)

ANSWxR: The vinformation vneeded vto vtrack vthe vmessage

QUxSTION: What is meant by the term “check,” in reference to a formal trafc message?

(T2C11)

ANSWxR: The vnumber vof vwords vor vword vequiealents vin vthe vtext vportion vof vthe v message

xven in emergencies, you must fol ow FCC rules when operating an amateur radio station. Te normal rules are, however, relaxed a little during true emergencies.

QUxSTION: When do the FCC rules NOT apply to the operation of an amateur station?

(T2C01)

ANSWxR: FCC vrules valways vapply

QUxSTION: Are amateur station control operators ever permitted to operate outside the frequency privileges of their license class? (T2C09)

ANSWxR: Yes, vbut vonly vif vnecessary vin vsituations vineoleing vthe vimmediate vsafety vof v human vlife vor vprotection vof vproperty

It's kind of a Catch-22. FCC rules always apply to the operation of an amateur radio station, but the rules say that you can do almost anything in a true emergency.

73

Amateur satellite operation

Making contacts via amateur radio satel ites and other space stations is one of the coolest things a ham can do. As a Technician Class licensee, you will have the privileges to do this.

QUxSTION: Which amateur radio stations may make contact with an amateur radio station on the International Space Station (ISS) using 2 meter and 70 cm band frequencies?

(T1B02)

ANSWxR: Any vamateur vholding va vTechnician vor vhigher-class vlicense Amateur satel ites are basical y repeaters in space. As such they have an uplink frequency, which is the frequency on which you transmit and the satel ite receives, and a downlink frequency, on which the satel ite transmits and you receive. Often, the uplink frequency and downlink frequency are in diferent amateur bands.

QUxSTION: What is meant by the statement that a satel ite is operating in mode U/V?

(T8B08)

ANSWxR: The vsatellite vuplink vis vin vthe v00 vcm vband vand vthe vdownlink vis vin vthe v2 vmeter band

Te 70 cm band is in the UHF portion of the spectrum, hence the “U” in U/V, while the 2 meter band is in the VHF portion of the spectrum, hence the “V” in U/V.

While most satel ites are FM satel ites, some operate using other modes.

QUxSTION: What mode of transmission is commonly used by amateur radio satel ites?

(T8B04)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

SSB

•

FM

•

CW/data

When making contacts via an amateur satel ite only use as much power as is needed to make the contact. Te reason for this is that when a satel ite receives a very strong signal, its automatic gain control (AeC) sets the receive threshold to the level of that signal and weaker signals won't be relayed.

When everyone uses a reasonable power level, the AeC doesn't kick in, and the satel ite can relay many signals simultaneously.

QUxSTION: What is the impact of using too much efective radiated power on a satel ite uplink? (T8B02)

ANSWxR: Blocking vaccess vby vother vusers

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a good way to judge whether your uplink power is neither too low nor too high? (T8B12)

ANSWxR: Your vsignal vstrength von vthe vdownlink vshould vbe vabout vthe vsame vas vthe v 74

beacon

Most amateur satel ites are in a low xarth orbit, or LxO. Satel ites in a low xarth orbit have an altitude between 99 miles and 1,200 miles. Tis corresponds to an orbital period of about 88 minutes to about about 127 minutes. Satel ites in LxO provides high bandwidth and low communication time lag, but they can only be used for a short time when they pass overhead.

QUxSTION: What do the initials LxO tel you about an amateur satel ite? (T8B10) ANSWxR: The vsatellite vis vin va vLow vEarth vOrbit

Amateur satel ites are often equipped with beacons. Beacons often send telemetry signals that inform users about the status of the satel ite.

QUxSTION: What is a satel ite beacon? (T8B05)

ANSWxR: A vtransmission vfrom va vsatellite vthat vcontains vstatus vinformation QUxSTION: What telemetry information is typical y transmitted by satel ite beacons?

(T8B01)

ANSWxR: Health vand vstatus vof vthe vsatellite

QUxSTION: Who may receive telemetry from a space station? (T8B11) ANSWxR: Anyone vwho vcan vreceiee vthe vtelemetry vsignal

Computers make it easy to fgure out when you can communicate via an amateur satel ite. Computer programs are available that not only tel you when a satel ite is passing overhead, but also control an antenna rotor and set the frequency of your transceiver.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing are provided by satel ite tracking programs? (T8B03) ANSWxR: All vof vthese vanswers vare vcorrect

•

Maps showing the real-time position of the satel ite track over the earth

•

Te time, azimuth, and elevation of the start, maximum altitude, and end of a pass

•

Te apparent frequency of the satel ite transmission, including efects of Doppler shift QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing are inputs to a satel ite tracking program? (T8B06) ANSWxR: The vKeplerian velements

Two issues that you must deal with when communicating via satel ites are Doppler shift and spin fading.

QUxSTION: With regard to satel ite communications, what is Doppler shift? (T8B07) 75

ANSWxR: An vobsereed vchange vin vsignal vfrequency vcaused vby vrelatiee vmotion vbetween v the vsatellite vand vthe vearth vstation

QUxSTION: What causes “spin fading” of satel ite signals? (T8B09) ANSWxR: Rotation vof vthe vsatellite vand vits vantennas

76

Operating activities

Tere are many diferent ways to have fun with amateur radio. Contesting is one of them.

QUxSTION: What operating activity involves contacting as many stations as possible during a specifed period? (T8C03)

ANSWxR: Contesting

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a good procedure when contacting another station in a radio contest? (T8C04)

ANSWxR: Send vonly vthe vminimum vinformation vneeded vfor vproper videntification vand v the vcontest vexchange

Sending the minimum amount of information wil help you make as many contacts as possible.

Information about a station's location is often part of the contest exchange. In the U.S., a station's state or ARRL section is most often sent, but in VHF/UHF contests, stations often send each other their grid locators.

QUxSTION: What is a grid locator? (T8C05)

ANSWxR: A vletter-number vdesignator vassigned vto va vgeographic vlocation One activity that is both fun and practical is radio direction fnding. You use radio direction fnding equipment and skills to participate in hidden transmitter hunts.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing methods is used to locate sources of noise interference or jamming? (T8C01)

ANSWxR: Radio vdirection vfinding

QUxSTION: Which of these items would be useful for a hidden transmitter hunt?

(T8C02)

ANSWxR: A vdirectional vantenna

If the only radios that you have are VHF or UHF radios, you might want to look into xchoLink and the Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP). Both systems provide a way to communicate with amateurs far away with a VHF or UHF transceiver. Both use Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP).

QUxSTION: What is the Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP)? (T8C08) ANSWxR: A vtechnique vto vconnect vamateur vradio vsystems, vsuch vas vrepeaters, veia vthe v internet vusing vVoice vOeer vInternet vProtocol v(VoIP)

QUxSTION: What is meant by Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP), as used in amateur radio? (T8C07)

ANSWxR: A vmethod vof vdelieering veoice vcommunications voeer vthe vinternet vusing v digital vtechniques

77

QUxSTION: What must be done before you may use the xchoLink system to communicate using a repeater? (T8C10)

ANSWxR: You vmust vregister vyour vcall vsign vand vproeide vproof vof vlicense Stations that connect to xchoLink or IRLP are cal ed nodes.

QUxSTION: How might you obtain a list of active nodes that use VoIP? (T8C09) ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

By subscribing to an on line service

•

From on line repeater lists maintained by the local repeater frequency coordinator

•

From a repeater directory

QUxSTION: How is access to some IRLP nodes accomplished? (T8C06) ANSWxR: By vusing vDTMF vsignals

QUxSTION: What type of tones are used to control repeaters linked by the Internet Relay Linking Project (IRLP) protocol? (T2B06)

ANSWxR: DTMF

Sometimes, nodes are also gateways.

QUxSTION: What name is given to an amateur radio station that is used to connect other amateur stations to the internet? (T8C11)

ANSWxR: A vgateway

78

Rules and regulations

Purpose and permissible use of the Amateur Radio Service,

operator/primary station license grant; basic terms used in FCC rules; interference; RACES rules; phonetics; Frequency Coordinator

Te Amateur Radio Service is a service administered by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Te FCC establishes the rules and regulations which govern the service.

QUxSTION: Which agency regulates and enforces the rules for the Amateur Radio Service in the United States? (T1A02)

ANSWxR: The vFCC

Part 97 is the part of the radio regulations that govern the Amateur Radio Service. Part 97.1 lists fve

“purposes” for the existence of amateur radio. Te frst is recognition of its usefulness in providing emergency and public-service communications. Another is the use of amateur radio as a way to help people become better technicians and operators.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a purpose of the Amateur Radio Service as stated in the FCC rules and regulations? (T1A01)

ANSWxR: Adeancing vskills vin vthe vtechnical vand vcommunication vphases vof vthe vradio v art

Part 97 defnes terms and concepts that every amateur radio operator needs to know.

QUxSTION: What is the FCC Part 97 defnition of a beacon? (T1A06) ANSWxR: An vamateur vstation vtransmitting vcommunications vfor vthe vpurposes vof v obsereing vpropagation vor vrelated vexperimental vactieities QUxSTION: What is the FCC Part 97 defnition of a space station? (T1A07) ANSWxR: An vamateur vstation vlocated vmore vthan v50 vkm vaboee vthe vEarth’s vsurface One of the most important concepts in Part 97 is that of harmful interference. Part 97 defnes harmful interference as “interference which endangers the functioning of a radionavigation service or of other safety services or seriously degrades, obstructs or repeatedly interrupts a radiocommunication service operating in accordance with the Radio Regulations.”

QUxSTION: When is wil ful interference to other amateur radio stations permitted?

(T1A11)

ANSWxR: At vno vtime

79

Part 97 also contains rules about how repeater frequencies are assigned.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing entities recommends transmit/receive channels and other parameters for auxiliary and repeater stations? (T1A08)

ANSWxR: Volunteer vFrequency vCoordinator vrecognized vby vlocal vamateurs QUxSTION: Who selects a Frequency Coordinator? (T1A09)

ANSWxR: Amateur voperators vin va vlocal vor vregional varea vwhose vstations vare veligible vto v be vrepeater vor vauxiliary vstations

80

Authorized frequencies: frequency allocations; ITU; emission modes; restricted sub-bands; spectrum sharing; transmissions near band edges; contacting the International Space Station; power output Te International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is the body responsible for setting international telecommunications rules and regulations. Tis includes amateur radio.

QUxSTION: What is the International Telecommunications Union (ITU)? (T1B01) ANSWxR: A vUnited vNations vagency vfor vinformation vand vcommunication vtechnology v issues v

Because operation outside of the amateur radio bands is a serious ofense, it is important to know about the frequencies that amateur radio operators can use, as wel as the modes you can use on those frequencies.

QUxSTION: Which frequency is within the 6 meter amateur band? (T1B03) ANSWxR: 52.525 vMHz

QUxSTION: Which amateur band are you using when your station is transmitting on 146.52 MHz? (T1B04)

ANSWxR: 2 vmeter vband

QUxSTION: Why should you not set your transmit frequency to be exactly at the edge of an amateur band or sub-band? (T1B09)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

To al ow for calibration error in the transmitter frequency display

•

So that modulation sidebands do not extend beyond the band edge

•

To al ow for transmitter frequency drift

QUxSTION: What is the limitation for emissions on the frequencies between 219 and 220 MHz? (T1B05)

ANSWxR: Fixed vdigital vmessage vforwarding vsystems vonly

QUxSTION: On which HF bands does a Technician class operator have phone privileges?

(T1B06)

ANSWxR: 10 vmeter vband vonly

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing HF bands have frequencies available to the Technician class operator for RTTY and data transmissions? (T1B10) ANSWxR: 10 vmeter vband vonly

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing VHF/UHF frequency ranges are limited to CW

only? (T1B07)

ANSWxR: 50.0 vMHz vto v50.1 vMHz vand v144.0 vMHz vto v144.1 vMHz 81

Since Technician Class operators have ful amateur privileges above 50 MHz, they can operate transmitters with an output power of up to 1,500 watts at frequencies in the VHF region and above.

On the HF bands, however, transmitters operated by Technicians are restricted to an output power of 200 watts or less.

QUxSTION: What is the maximum peak envelope power output for Technician class operators using their assigned portions of the HF bands? (T1B11) ANSWxR: 200 vwatts

QUxSTION: xxcept for some specifc restrictions, what is the maximum peak envelope power output for Technician class operators using frequencies above 30 MHz? (T1B12) ANSWxR: 1500 vwatts

Amateur radio operators share some bands with users from other services. Sometimes, amateurs are the primary users, such as in the 2m band, but sometimes amateur radio operators are secondary users.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a result of the fact that the Amateur Radio Service is secondary in al or portions of some amateur bands (such as portions of the 70 cm band)?

(T1B08)

ANSWxR: U.S. vamateurs vmay vfind vnon-amateur vstations vin vthose vportions, vand vmust v aeoid vinterfering vwith vthem

82

Operator licensing: operator classes; sequential and vanity call sign systems; international communications; reciprocal operation; places where the Amateur Radio Service is regulated by the FCC; name and address on FCC license database; license term; renewal; grace period As you might expect, licensing is a big deal in the Amateur Radio Service. Your class of license determines where you can operate, and in some cases, what modes you can operate and how much power you can use.

QUxSTION: For which license classes are new licenses currently available from the FCC?

(T1C01)

ANSWxR: Technician, vGeneral, vAmateur vExtra

QUxSTION: What is the normal term for an FCC-issued primary station/operator amateur radio license grant? (T1C08)

ANSWxR: Ten vyears

QUxSTION: How soon after passing the examination for your frst amateur radio license may you operate a transmitter on an Amateur Radio Service frequency? (T1C10) ANSWxR: As vsoon vas vyour voperator/station vlicense vgrant vappears vin vthe vFCC’s vlicense v database

QUxSTION: How many operator/primary station license grants may be held by any one person? (T1A04)

ANSWxR: One

For some time now, the ofcial amateur radio license authorization has been the electronic record that exists in the FCC Universal Licensing System (ULS). Paper licenses are no longer issued as a matter of course, although you can log into the FCC website and print out a paper copy if you so choose.

QUxSTION: What is proof of possession of an FCC-issued operator/primary license grant? (T1A05)

ANSWxR: The vcontrol voperator’s voperator/primary vstation vlicense vmust vappear vin vthe v FCC vULS vconsolidated vlicensee vdatabase

After you pass the test, the FCC will assign you a cal sign sequential y from the pool of available cal signs. If you do not like this cal sign, you can apply for a vanity cal sign.

QUxSTION: Who may select a desired cal sign under the vanity cal sign rules? (T1C02) ANSWxR: Any vlicensed vamateur

Te cal sign you select must not only be available, it must have an appropriate format for the class of license you hold. For example, only Amateur xxtra class licensees may hold 1x2 or 2x1 cal signs. Tis means that a Technician class amateur radio operator may not choose the cal signs KA1X, which is a 83

2x1 cal sign, or W1XX, which is a 1x2 cal sign.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a valid cal sign for a Technician class amateur radio station? (T1C05)

ANSWxR: K1XXX

If you don’t renew your license before it expires, or within the two-year grace period, you wil have to take the test again to get a new amateur radio license.

QUxSTION: What is the grace period fol owing the expiration of an amateur license within which the license may be renewed? (T1C09)

ANSWxR: Two vyears

QUxSTION: If your license has expired and is stil within the al owable grace period, may you continue to operate a transmitter on Amateur Radio Service frequencies? (T1C11) ANSWxR: No, vtransmitting vis vnot vallowed vuntil vthe vFCC vlicense vdatabase vshows vthat v the vlicense vhas vbeen vrenewed

Clubs may apply for a station license for their club station. Te club may even apply for a vanity cal sign.

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is a requirement for the issuance of a club station license grant? (T1F11)

ANSWxR: The vclub vmust vhaee vat vleast vfour vmembers

When you get your frst license, you must give the examiners a mailing address. Should you move, you must inform the FCC of your new mailing address.

QUxSTION: What may result when correspondence from the FCC is returned as undeliverable because the grantee failed to provide and maintain a correct mailing address with the FCC? (T1C07)

ANSWxR: Reeocation vof vthe vstation vlicense vor vsuspension vof vthe voperator vlicense Some countries have reciprocal licensing agreements with the U.S., and you can operate from that country without any specifc authorization. For example, I could operate my station in eermany by simply using the cal sign DL/KB6NU. Tere are restrictions on your operating privileges, depending on the country from which you plan to operate, and you should investigate these before you get on the air.

QUxSTION: When are you al owed to operate your amateur station in a foreign country?

(T1C04)

84

ANSWxR: When vthe vforeign vcountry vauthorizes vit You can also operate your station while aboard a ship in international waters.

QUxSTION: From which of the fol owing locations may an FCC-licensed amateur station transmit? (T1C06)

ANSWxR: From vany veessel vor vcraft vlocated vin vinternational vwaters vand vdocumented vor v registered vin vthe vUnited vStates

85

Authorized and prohibited transmission: communications with other countries; music; exchange of information with other services; indecent language; compensation for use of station; retransmission of other amateur signals; codes and ciphers; sale of equipment; unidentified transmissions; one-way transmission

As a licensed radio amateur, it’s important to know what you can and can’t do on the air. Indecent language is prohibited, and oddly enough, so is music, except for one specifc situation.

QUxSTION: What, if any, are the restrictions concerning transmission of language that may be considered obscene or indecent? (T1D06)

ANSWxR: Any vsuch vlanguage vis vprohibited

QUxSTION: Under what conditions is an amateur station authorized to transmit music using a phone emission? (T1D04)

ANSWxR: When vincidental vto van vauthorized vretransmission vof vmanned vspacecraft v communications

Transmitting any codes whose specifcations are not published or wel -known is prohibited, except in one specifc circumstance.

QUxSTION: When is it permissible to transmit messages encoded to hide their meaning?

(T1D03)

ANSWxR: Only vwhen vtransmitting vcontrol vcommands vto vspace vstations vor vradio v control vcraft

Amateur radio stations may only communicate with amateur stations in other countries when that country al ows it.

QUxSTION: With which countries are FCC-licensed amateur radio stations prohibited from exchanging communications? (T1D01)

ANSWxR: Any vcountry vwhose vadministration vhas vnotified vthe vInternational v Telecommunications vUnion v(ITU) vthat vit vobjects vto vsuch vcommunications Currently, there are no countries that U.S. amateurs are prohibited from contacting.

Another big deal in amateur radio is the prohibition of being paid to operate an amateur radio station, except in some very special circumstances. Tat doesn't mean that you can't make money from amateur radio. I’m obviously making a few bucks by sel ing study guides, but I can't be paid for operating my station or someone else's station.

QUxSTION: In which of the fol owing circumstances may the control operator of an amateur station receive compensation for operating that station? (T1D08) 86

ANSWxR: When vthe vcommunication vis vincidental vto vclassroom vinstruction vat van v educational vinstitution

QUxSTION: When may amateur radio operators use their stations to notify other amateurs of the availability of equipment for sale or trade? (T1D05) ANSWxR: When vthe vequipment vis vnormally vused vin van vamateur vstation vand vsuch v actieity vis vnot vconducted von va vregular vbasis

Al amateur communications must be station to station. Tat is to say, amateur radio operators may not broadcast.

QUxSTION: What is the meaning of the term broadcasting in the FCC rules for the Amateur Radio Service? (T1D10).

ANSWxR: Transmissions vintended vfor vreception vby vthe vgeneral vpublic QUxSTION: Under which of the fol owing circumstances are amateur stations authorized to transmit signals related to broadcasting, program production, or news gathering, assuming no other means is available? (T1D09)

ANSWxR: Only vwhere vsuch vcommunications vdirectly vrelate vto vthe vimmediate vsafety vof v human vlife vor vprotection vof vproperty

As with many rules, however, there are exceptions.

QUxSTION: Under which of the fol owing circumstances may an amateur radio station make one-way transmissions? (T1D02)

ANSWxR: When vtransmitting vcode vpractice, vinformation vbulletins, vor vtransmissions v necessary vto vproeide vemergency vcommunications

So, what is al owed?

QUxSTION: What types of international communications is an FCC-licensed amateur radio station permitted to make? (T1C03)

ANSWxR: Communications vincidental vto vthe vpurposes vof vthe vAmateur vRadio vSereice v and vremarks vof va vpersonal vcharacter

87

Control operator and control types: control operator required; eligibility; designation of control operator; privileges and duties; control point; local, automatic and remote control; location of control operator An important concept in amateur radio is the control operator. Te basic concept is that an amateur radio station must always have a control operator, and that control operator is responsible for the proper operation of that station. And, the default control operator is the station licensee.

QUxSTION: When is an amateur station permitted to transmit without a control operator? (T1x01)

ANSWxR: Neeer

QUxSTION: Who does the FCC presume to be the control operator of an amateur station, unless documentation to the contrary is in the station records? (T1x11) ANSWxR: The vstation vlicensee

QUxSTION: Who must designate the station control operator? (T1x03) ANSWxR: The vstation vlicensee

QUxSTION: When the control operator is not the station licensee, who is responsible for the proper operation of the station? (T1x07)

ANSWxR: The vcontrol voperator vand vthe vstation vlicensee vare vequally vresponsible QUxSTION: Who is accountable should a repeater inadvertently retransmit communications that violate the FCC rules? (T1F10)

ANSWxR: The vcontrol voperator vof vthe voriginating vstation QUxSTION: What determines the transmitting privileges of an amateur station? (T1x04) ANSWxR: The vclass vof voperator vlicense vheld vby vthe vcontrol voperator QUxSTION: When, under normal circumstances, may a Technician class licensee be the control operator of a station operating in an exclusive Amateur xxtra class operator segment of the amateur bands? (T1x06)

ANSWxR: At vno vtime

QUxSTION: Who may be the control operator of a station communicating through an amateur satel ite or space station? (T1x02)

ANSWxR: Any vamateur vwhose vlicense vprieileges vallow vthem vto vtransmit von vthe v satellite vuplink vfrequency

Two related concepts are the control point and control type. Part 97 defnes three control types:

•

Local control. A station is said to be local y control ed when the control operator can directly manipulate the operating of an amateur radio station.

•

Remote control. A station is said to be remotely control ed when the control operator indirectly 88

manipulates the operating controls of an amateur radio station through a control link, such as a radio link, a telephone link, or an internet link.

•

Automatic control. A station is said to be automatical y control ed if it uses devices and procedures for control without the control operator being present at the control point.

QUxSTION: What is an amateur station control point? (T1x05)

ANSWxR: The vlocation vat vwhich vthe vcontrol voperator vfunction vis vperformed QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an example of automatic control? (T1x08) ANSWxR: Repeater voperation

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an example of remote control as defned in Part 97? (T1x10)

ANSWxR: Operating vthe vstation voeer vthe vinternet

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is true of remote control operation? (T1x09) ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

•

Te control operator must be at the control point

•

A control operator is required at al times

•

Te control operator indirectly manipulates the controls

89

Station identification, repeaters, third-party communications, FCC

inspection

Proper station identifcation is also very important. In fact, failure to identify properly is perhaps the most common rule violation.

QUxSTION: When is an amateur station required to transmit its assigned cal sign?

(T1F03)

ANSWxR: At vleast veeery v10 vminutes vduring vand vat vthe vend vof va vcommunication QUxSTION: When may an amateur station transmit without on-the-air identifcation?

(T1D11)

ANSWxR: When vtransmitting vsignals vto vcontrol va vmodel vcraft QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing is an acceptable language to use for station identifcation when operating in a phone sub-band? (T1F04)

ANSWxR: The vEnglish vlanguage

QUxSTION: What method of cal sign identifcation is required for a station transmitting phone signals? (T1F05)

ANSWxR: Send vthe vcall vsign vusing va vCW vor vphone vemission QUxSTION: What are the FCC rules regarding the use of a phonetic alphabet for station identifcation in the Amateur Radio Service? (T1A03)

ANSWxR: It vis vencouraged

For some types of operations, using a tactical cal is al owed. A tactical cal describes the function of the station or the location of a station.

QUxSTION: When using tactical identifers such as “Race Headquarters” during a community service net operation, how often must your station transmit the station’s FCC-assigned cal sign? (T1F02)

ANSWxR: At vthe vend vof veach vcommunication vand veeery vten vminutes vduring va v communication

When operating mobile or portable, or when you wish to note something about your station, you may use a self-assigned cal sign indicator, such as “/3,” “mobile,” or “QRP.”

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing formats of a self-assigned indicator is acceptable when identifying using a phone transmission? (T1F06)

ANSWxR: All vof vthese vchoices vare vcorrect

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KL7CC stroke W3

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KL7CC slant W3

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KL7CC slash W3

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Tird-party communications are communications on behalf of someone who is not the station licensee.

For example, if you have a friend over to your house and let him or her talk on your radio, that is a third-party communication. Tese are entirely legal within the United States, but there are some restrictions when you are in contact with an amateur station in a foreign country.

QUxSTION: What is meant by the term Tird Party Communications? (T1F08) ANSWxR: A vmessage vfrom va vcontrol voperator vto vanother vamateur vstation vcontrol v operator von vbehalf vof vanother vperson

QUxSTION: Which of the fol owing restrictions apply when a non-licensed person is al owed to speak to a foreign station using a station under the control of a Technician class control operator? (T1F07)

ANSWxR: The vforeign vstation vmust vbe vone vwith vwhich vthe vU.S. vhas va vthird-party v agreement

Final y—and I do mean fnal y.

QUxSTION: When must the station licensee make the station and its records available for FCC inspection? (T1F01)

ANSWxR: At vany vtime vupon vrequest vby van vFCC vrepresentatiee Tey’re not going to knock on your door at 3 a.m. some morning to take a look at your shack, but one of your obligations as a licensee is to make your station and your records available when requested to do so.

Wel , that's it! We've covered al 424 questions in the Technician Class question pool. Now, you should take some online practice tests, and when you're passing those regularly, fnd an exam session and get your license. eood luck and 73!

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Glossary

AC: alternating current. Alternating current is the name for current that reverses direction on a regular basis. (T5A09). Te power outlets in your home provide alternating current.

APRS: Automatic Packet Reporting System. APRS is digital communications system used by amateur radio operators. While it is normal y used for tracking the location of mobile stations, it can be used for other purposes as wel . For more information, go to http://www.aprs.org.

ARES: Amateur Radio xmergency Service. Te Amateur Radio xmergency Service consists of licensed amateurs who have voluntarily registered their qualifcations and equipment with their local ARxS

leadership for communications duty in the public service when disaster strikes. For more information, go to http://www.arrl.org/ares.

AM: amplitude modulation. Te type of modulation that varies the amplitude of a radio signal in accordance with the amplitude of a modulating signal. For more information, go to http://www.pa2old.nl/fles/am_fundamentals.pdf.

CTCSS: Continuous Tone Coded Squelch System. A system that uses sub-audible tones, transmitted along with the audio portion of a transmission to control whether or not a repeater wil re-transmit a signal. It is known by a number of diferent trade names, including Private Line® (PL) by Motorola. In practice, it’s used to prevent nearby transmitters from inadvertently turning on repeaters.

CW: continuous wave. Tis is the operating mode amateur radio operators use when sending Morse Code.

DC: direct current. Direct current is the name for current that never reverses direction.

DMR: Digital Mobile Radio

DTMF: dual-tone, multi-frequency. DTMF is a type of signaling used to send data over voice channels.

Its most common use in amateur radio is to al ow users of handheld transceivers to send commands to repeater systems. It is cal ed DTMF because every time a user presses a keypad button a unique tone consisting of two frequencies is transmitted. For more information, see http://www.genave.com/dtmf.htm.

FCC: Federal Communications Commission. Tis is the government body which sets the rules for amateur radio in the U.S.

FM: frequency modulation. Te type of modulation normal y used when operating on VHF and UHF

repeaters.

HF: high frequency. Te range of frequencies between 3 MHz and 30 MHz.

HT: handy-talky or handheld transceiver. “Handy Talky” is a Motorola trademark.

ITU: International Telecommunications Union. Tis is the international body which governs amateur radio worldwide.

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LSB: lower sideband. See SSB.

MFSK: multi-frequency shift keying. A type of modulation used to send digital information over a radio channel.

PL: Private Line. See CTCSS.

PSK: phase shift keying. A method for sending digital information over a radio channel. A popular amateur radio “digital mode” is PSK31, which uses PSK modulation and occupies only 31 Hz of bandwidth.

PTT: push-to-talk

RACES: Radio Amateur Civil xmergency Service. RACxS is an amateur radio emergency communications service created by the Federal xmergency Management Agency (FxMA) and the FCC.

RACxS volunteers serve their respective jurisdictions pursuant to guidelines and mandates established by local emergency management ofcials. See http://www.usraces.org/ for more information.

RIT: receiver incremental tuning. A control which al ows a user to set the receive frequency of a transceiver either slightly higher or slightly lower than the transmit frequency.

RF: radio frequency

SSB: single sideband. When a carrier is amplitude modulated, both upper and lower sidebands are produced. Tis results in a signal that is 6 kHz wide. Since both sidebands carry the same information, and the carrier carries no information, someone fgured out that if they could flter out the carrier and one of the sidebands, and put al the power into a single sideband, the efciency of voice communications would be much greater. Nearly al voice communications on the shortwave bands now use SSB.

SWR: standing-wave ratio. Te SWR of an antenna system is a measure of how closely the impedances of the antenna and feedline match the output impedance of the transmitter.

VHF: very high frequency. Te range of frequencies between 30 MHz and 300 MHz.

ULS: Universal Licensing System. Te FCC’s Universal Licensing system contains information on al FCC licensees, including amateur radio operators. For more information, go to http://www.fcc.gov/uls.

UHF: ultra high frequency. Te range of frequencies between 300 MHz and 3000 MHz. 41

USB: upper sideband. See SSB.

VFO: variable frequency oscil ator. VFOs are used to control the receiving and transmitting frequencies of amateur radio equipment.

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About the Author

I have been a ham radio operator since 1971 and a radio enthusiast as long as I can remember. I’ve been teaching ham radio classes for the past twelve years. In addition to being an amateur radio instructor:

•

I blog about amateur radio at KB6NU.Com (http://kb6nu.com).

•

I have written study guides for the eeneral Class and xxtra Class exams. You can fnd the No-Nonsense General Class License Study Guide and the No-Nonsense Extra Class License Study Guide in PDF, Nook (ePub) and Kindle (.mobi) formats on my website at http://www.kb6nu.com/study-guides. It's also available in print from Amazon.

•

I am the author of 21 Things to io Witn your Amaateur Raadio License, a book for those who have been recently licensed or are just getting back into the hobby. It's also available in PDF, Nook (ePub) and Kindle (.mobi) formats on my website at http://www.kb6nu.com/product/21-things-to-do-after-you-get-your-amateur-radio-license-pdf/. It's also available in print from Amazon.

•

I am the author of The CW Gee'ss Guide to aaiing uun iitn oorse Code, a book for those wanting to learn the art of Morse Code. It's also available in PDF, Nook (ePub) and Kindle (.mobi) formats on my website at https://www.kb6nu.com/product/cw-geeks-guide-to-having-fun-with-morse-code-pdf/. It's also available in print from Amazon.

•

I send out a monthly column to more than 400 amateur radio clubs in North America, Canada, and xurope for publication in their newsletters.

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I teach amateur radio classes al over the country, including an annual class at the Dayton Hamvention.

You can contact me by sending e-mail to cwgeek@kb6nu.com. If you have comments or questions about any of the stuf in this book, I hope you wil do so.

73!

Dan, KB6NU

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Table of Contents

What is amateur (ham) radio?........................................................................

Where do I take the test?...........................................................................

Good luck and have fun..............................................................................

Electrical principles...............................................................................

Ohm’s Law: formulas and usage.......................................................................

Series and paral el circuits........................................................................

DC power............................................................................................

Math for electronics and conversion of electrical units.............................................

Decibels............................................................................................

Electronic components and circuit diagrams..........................................................

Semiconductors: basic principles and applications of solid state devices, diodes and

Circuit diagrams, schematic symbols, component functions...........................................1

Other components....................................................................................

Radio wave characteristics..........................................................................

Properties of radio waves and propagation modes.....................................................

HF Propagation......................................................................................

Antennas and feed lines.............................................................................

Feed lines and connectors...........................................................................

Standing wave ratio and antenna measurements........................................................

Amateur radio signals...............................................................................

Digital modes: packet, PSK31........................................................................

Electrical safety...................................................................................

Antenna and tower safety............................................................................

RF hazards and radiation exposure...................................................................

Amateur radio practices and station setup...........................................................

Operating controls: tuning, use of filters, squelch function, AGC, repeater offset,

Station equipment...................................................................................

Common transmitter and receiver problems: symptoms of overload and overdrive;

Basic repair and testing: soldering; using basic test instruments; connecting a voltmeter,

Operating Procedures................................................................................

HF Operation........................................................................................

Public service and emergency communications.........................................................

Amateur satellite operation.........................................................................

Operating activities................................................................................

Rules and regulations...............................................................................

bands; spectrum sharing; transmissions near band edges; contacting the International

Operator licensing: operator classes; sequential and vanity call sign systems;

Authorized and prohibited transmission: communications with other countries; music;

Control operator and control types: control operator required; eligibility; designation of

Station identification, repeaters, third-party communications, FCC inspection...............88

Glossary............................................................................................

About the Author....................................................................................